Methods and compositions for treating amyloid-related diseases

ABSTRACT

Methods, compounds, pharmaceutical compositions and kits are described for treating or preventing amyloid-related disease.

RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application claims priority to U.S. provisional patent application No. 60/480,906, filed Jun. 23, 2003 and U.S. provisional patent application No. 60/512,047, filed Oct. 17, 2003, both entitled Methods and Compositions for Treating Amyloid-Related Diseases. This application is related to U.S. application Ser. No. 10/______, filed Jun. 18, 2004 (identified by Attorney Docket No. NBI-162B), entitled Methods and Compositions for Treating Amyloid-Related Diseases.

This application is also related to U.S. provisional patent application No. 60/480,918, filed Jun. 23, 2003, U.S. provisional application 60/512,017, filed Oct. 17, 2003, and U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/______, filed Jun. 18, 2004 (identified by Attorney Docket No. NBI-149), all entitled Methods for Treating Protein Aggregation Disorders.

This application is related to U.S. provisional patent application No. 60/480,984, filed Jun. 23, 2003, U.S. provisional patent application No. 60/512,116, filed Oct. 17, 2003, and U.S. application Ser. No. 10/______, filed Jun. 18, 2004 (identified by Attorney Docket No. NBI-152), entitled Pharmaceutical Formulations of Amyloid-Inhibiting Compounds.

This application is related to U.S. provisional application 60/482,214, filed Jun. 23, 2003, U.S. provisional application No. 60/436,379, filed Dec. 24, 2002, entitled Combination Therapy for the Treatment of Alzheimer 's Disease, U.S. utility patent application Ser. No. 10/746,138, filed Dec. 24, 2003, International patent application no. PCT/CA2003/002011, and U.S. application Ser. No. 10/______, filed Jun. 18, 2004 (identified by NBI-154CP), entitled Therapeutic Formulations for the Treatment of Beta-Amyloid Related Diseases.

This application is related to U.S. provisional patent application No. 60/482,058, filed Jun. 23, 2003, U.S. provisional patent application No. 60/512,135, filed Oct. 17, 2003, both entitled Synthetic Process for Preparing Compounds for Treating Amyloidosis, and U.S. application Ser. No. 10/______, filed Jun. 18, 2004 (identified by Attorney Docket No. NBI-156), entitled Improved Pharmaceutical Drug Candidates and Methodfor Preparation Thereof.

This application is related to U.S. Provisional Patent Application Ser. No. 60/512,018, filed on Oct. 19, 2003 and U.S. Provisional Patent Application Ser. No. 60/480,928, and U.S. application Ser. No. 10/______, filed Jun. 18, 2004 (identified by Attorney Docket No. NBI-163), all entitled Methods and Compositions for Treating Amyloid- and Epileptogenesis-Associated Diseases.

This application is also related to Methodfor Treating Amyloidosis, U.S. patent application Ser. No. 08/463,548, now U.S. Pat. No. 5,972,328.

The entire contents of each of these patent applications and patents are hereby expressly incorporated herein by reference including without limitation the specification, claims, and abstract, as well as any figures, tables, or drawings thereof.

BACKGROUND

Amyloidosis refers to a pathological condition characterized by the presence of amyloid fibrils. Amyloid is a generic term referring to a group of diverse but specific protein deposits (intracellular or extracellular) which are seen in a number of different diseases. Though diverse in their occurrence, all amyloid deposits have common morphologic properties, stain with specific dyes (e.g., Congo red), and have a characteristic red-green birefringent appearance in polarized light after staining. They also share common ultrastructural features and common X-ray diffraction and infrared spectra.

Amyloid-related diseases can either be restricted to one organ or spread to several organs. The first instance is referred to as “localized amyloidosis” while the second is referred to as “systemic amyloidosis.”

Some amyloid diseases can be idiopathic, but most of these diseases appear as a complication of a previously existing disorder. For example, primary armyloidosis (AL amyloid) can appear without any other pathology or can follow plasma cell dyscrasia or multiple myeloma.

Secondary amyloidosis is usually seen associated with chronic infection (such as tuberculosis) or chronic inflammation (such as rheumatoid arthritis). A familial form of secondary amyloidosis is also seen in other types of familial amyloidosis, e.g., Familial Mediterranean Fever (FMF). This familial type of amyloidosis is genetically inherited and is found in specific population groups. In both primary and secondary amyloidosis, deposits are found in several organs and are thus considered systemic amyloid diseases.

“Localized amyloidoses” are those that tend to involve a single organ system. Different arnyloids are also characterized by the type of protein present in the deposit. For example, neurodegenerative diseases such as scrapie, bovine spongiform encephalitis, Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease, and the like are characterized by the appearance and accumulation of a protease-resistant form of a prion protein (referred to as AScr or PrP-27) in the central nervous system. Similarly, Alzheimer's disease, another neurodegenerative disorder, is characterized by neuritic plaques and neurofibrillary tangles. In this case, the amyloid plaques found in the parenchyma and the blood vessel is formed by the deposition of fibrillar Aβ amyloid protein. Other diseases such as adult-onset diabetes (type II diabetes) are characterized by the localized accumulation of amyloid fibrils in the pancreas.

Once these amyloids have formed, there is no known, widely accepted therapy or treatment which significantly dissolves amyloid deposits in situ, prevents further amyloid deposition or prevents the initiation of amyloid deposition.

Each amyloidogenic protein has the ability to undergo a conformational change and to organize into β-sheets and form insoluble fibrils which may be deposited extracellularly or intracellularly. Each amyloidogenic protein, although different in amino acid sequence, has the same property of forming fibrils and binding to other elements such as proteoglycan, amyloid P and complement component. Moreover, each amyloidogenic protein has amino acid sequences which, although different, show similarities such as regions with the ability to bind to the glycosaminoglycan (GAG) portion of proteoglycan (referred to as the GAG binding site) as well as other regions which promote β-sheet formation. Proteoglycans are macromolecules of various sizes and structures that are districuted almost everywhere in the body. They can be found in the intracellular compartment, on the surface of cells, and as part of the extracellular matrix. The basic structure of all proteoglycans is comprised of a core protein and at least one, but frequently more, polysaccharide chains (GAGs) attached to the core protein. Many different GAGs have been discovered including chondroitin sulfate, dermatan sulfate, keratan sulfate, heparin, and hyaluronan.

In specific cases, amyloid fibrils, once deposited, can become toxic to the surrounding cells. For example, the Aβ fibrils organized as senile plaques have been shown to be associated with dead neuronal cells, dystrophic neurites, astrocytosis, and microgliosis in patients with Alzheimer's disease. When tested in vitro, oligomeric (soluble) as well as fibrillar Aβ peptide was shown to be capable of triggering an activation process of microglia (brain macrophages), which would explain the presence of microgliosis and brain inflammation found in the brain of patients with Alzheimer's disease. Both oligomeric and fibrillar Aβ peptide can also induce neuronal cell death in vitro. See, e.g., MP Lambert, et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 95, 6448-53 (1998).

In another type of amyloidosis seen in patients with type II diabetes, the amyloidogenic protein IAPP, when organized in oligomeric forms or in fibrils, has been shown to induce β-islet cell toxicity in vitro. Hence, appearance of IAPP fibrils in the pancreas of type II diabetic patients contributes to the loss of the β islet cells (Langerhans) and organ dysfunction which can lead to insulinemia.

Another type of amyloidosis is related to β₂ microglobulin and is found in long-term hemodialysis patients. Patients undergoing long term hemodialysis will develop β₂-microglobulin fibrils in the carpal tunnel and in the collagen rich tissues in several joints. This causes severe pains, joint stiffniess and swelling.

Amyloidosis is also characteristic of Alzheimer's disease. Alzheimer's disease is a devastating disease of the brain that results in progressive memory loss leading to dementia, physical disability, and death over a relatively long period of time. With the aging populations in developed countries, the number of Alzheimer's patients is reaching epidemic proportions.

People suffering from Alzheimer's disease develop a progressive dementia in adulthood, accompanied by three main structural changes in the brain: diffuse loss of neurons in multiple parts of the brain; accumulation of intracellular protein deposits termed neurofibrillary tangles; and accumulation of extracellular protein deposits termed amyloid or senile plaques, surrounded by misshapen nerve terminals (dystrophic neurites) and activated microglia (microgliosis and astrocytosis). A main constituent of these amyloid plaques is the amyloid-β peptide (Aβ), a 39-43 amino-acid protein that is produced through cleavage of the β-amyloid precursor protein (APP). Extensive research has been conducted on the relevance of Aβ deposits in Alzheimer's disease, see, e.g., Selkoe, Trends in Cell Biology 8, 447-453 (1998). AP naturally arises from the metabolic processing of the amyloid precursor protein (“APP”) in the endoplasmic reticulum (“ER”), the Golgi apparatus, or the endosomal-lysosomal pathway, and most is normally secreted as a 40 (“Aβ1-40”) or 42 (“Aβ1-42”) amino acid peptide (Selkoe, Annu. Rev. Cell Biol. 10, 373-403 (1994)). A role for AP as a primary cause for Alzheimer's disease is supported by the presence of extracellular AP deposits in senile plaques of Alzheimer's disease, the increased production of Aβ in cells harboring mutant Alzheimer's disease associated genes, e.g., amyloid precursor protein, presenilin I and presenilin II; and the toxicity of extracellular soluble (oligomeric) or fibrillar Aβ to cells in culture. See, e.g., Gervais, Eur. Biopharm. Review, 40-42 (Autumn 2001); May, DDT6, 459-62 (2001). Although symptomatic treatments exist for Alzheimer's disease, this disease cannot be prevented or cured at this time.

Alzheimer's disease is characterized by diffuse and neuritic plaques, cerebral angiopathy, and neurofibrillary tangles. Plaque and blood vessel amyloid is believed to be formed by the deposition of insoluble Aβ amyloid protein, which may be described as diffuse or fibrillary. Both soluble oligomeric Aβ and fibrillar Aβ are also believed to be neurotoxic and inflammatory.

Another type of amyloidosis is cerebral amyloid angiopathy (CAA). CAA is the specific deposition of amyloid-β fibrils in the walls of leptomingeal and cortical arteries, arterioles and veins. It is commonly associated with Alzheimer's disease, Down's syndrome and normal aging, as well as with a variety of familial conditions related to stroke or dementia (see Frangione et al., Amyloid: J. Protein Folding Disord. 8, Suppl. 1, 36-42 (2001)).

Presently available therapies for treatment of β-amyloid diseases are almost entirely symptomatic, providing only temporary or partial clinical benefit. Although some pharmaceutical agents have been described that offer partial symptomatic relief, no comprehensive pharmacological therapy is currently available for the prevention or treatment of, for example, Alzheimer's disease.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

The present invention relates to the use of certain compounds in the treatment of arnyloid-related diseases. In particular, the invention relates to a method of treating or preventing an amyloid-related disease in a subject comprising administering to the subject a therapeutic amount of a compound of the invention. The invention also pertains to each of the novel compounds of the invention as described herein. Among the compounds for use in the invention are those according to the following Formulae, such that, when administered, amyloid fibril formation, organ specific dysfunction (e.g., neurodegeneration), or cellular toxicity is reduced or inhibited

In one embodiment, the invention pertains, at least in part to compounds of Formula I:

wherein:

-   -   R¹ is a substituted or unsubstituted cycloalkyl, heterocyclic,         aryl, arylcycloalkyl, bicyclic or tricyclic ring, a bicyclic or         tricyclic fused ring group, or a substituted or unsubstituted         C₂-C₁₀ alkyl group;     -   R² is selected from a group consisting of hydrogen, alkyl,         mercaptoalkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, cycloalkyl, aryl, arylalkyl,         thiazolyl, triazolyl, imidazolyl, benzothiazolyl, and         benzoimidazolyl;     -   Y is SO₃ ⁻X⁺, OSO₃ ⁻X⁺, or SSO₃ ⁻X⁺;     -   X⁺ is hydrogen, a cationic group, or an ester-forming group         (i.e., as in a prodrug, which are described elsewhere herein);         and     -   each of L¹ and L² is independently a substituted or         unsubstituted C₁-C₅ alkyl group or absent, or a pharmaceutically         acceptable salt thereof, provided that when R¹ is alkyl, L¹ is         absent.

In another embodiment, the invention pertains, at least in part to compounds of Formula II:

wherein:

-   -   R¹ is a substituted or unsubstituted cyclic, bicyclic,         tricyclic, or benzoheterocyclic group or a substituted or         unsubstituted C₂-C₁₀ alkyl group;     -   R² is hydrogen, alkyl, mercaptoalkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl,         cycloalkyl, aryl, arylalkyl, thiazolyl, triazolyl, imidazolyl,         benzothiazolyl, benzoimidazolyl, or linked to R¹ to form a         heterocycle;     -   Y is SO₃ ⁻X⁺, OSO₃ ⁻X⁺, or SSO₃ ⁻X⁺;     -   X⁺ is hydrogen, a cationic group, or an ester forming moiety;     -   m is 0 or 1;     -   n is 1, 2, 3, or 4;     -   L is substituted or unsubstituted C₁-C₃ alkyl group or absent,         or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, provided that         when R¹ is alkyl, L is absent.

In yet another embodiment, the invention pertains, at least in part to compounds of Formula III:

wherein:

-   -   A is nitrogen or oxygen;     -   R¹¹ is hydrogen, salt-forming cation, ester forming group,         —(CH₂)_(x)—Q, or when A is nitrogen, A and R¹¹ taken together         may be the residue of a natural or unnatural amino acid or a         salt or ester thereof;     -   Q is hydrogen, thiazolyl, triazolyl, imidazolyl, benzothiazolyl,         or benzoimidazolyl;     -   x is 0, 1, 2, 3, or 4;     -   n is 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, or 10;     -   R³, R^(3a), R⁴, R^(4a), R⁵, R^(5a), R⁶, R^(6a), R⁷ and R^(7a)         are each independently hydrogen, alkyl, mercaptoalkyl, alkenyl,         alkynyl, cycloalkyl, aryl, alkylcarbonyl, arylcarbonyl,         alkoxycarbonyl, cyano, halogen, amino, tetrazolyl, or two R         groups on adjacent ring atoms taken together with the ring atoms         form a double bond, provided that one of R³, R^(3a), R⁴, R^(4a),         R⁵, R^(5a), R⁶, R^(6a), R⁷ and R^(7a) is a moiety of Formula         IIIa:         wherein:     -   m is 0, 1, 2, 3, or 4;     -   R^(A), R^(B), R^(C), R^(D), and R^(E) are independently selected         from a group of hydrogen, halogen, hydroxyl, alkyl, alkoxyl,         halogenated alkyl, mercaptoalkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, cycloalkyl,         aryl, cyano, thiazolyl, triazolyl, imidazolyl, tetrazolyl,         benzothiazolyl, and benzoimidazolyl; and pharmaceutically         acceptable salts and esters thereof, provided that said compound         is not 3-(4-phenyl-1, 2, 3,         6-tetrahydro-1-pyridyl)-1-propanesulfonic acid.

In yet another embodiment, the invention pertains at least in part to compounds of Formula IV:

wherein:

A is nitrogen or oxygen;

-   -   R¹¹ is hydrogen, salt-forming cation, ester forming group,         —(CH₂)_(x)-Q, or when A is nitrogen, A and R¹¹ taken together         may be the residue of a natural or unnatural amino acid or a         salt or ester thereof;     -   Q is hydrogen, thiazolyl, triazolyl, imidazolyl, benzothiazolyl,         or benzoimidazolyl;     -   x is 0, 1, 2, 3, or 4;     -   n is 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, or 10;     -   R⁴, R^(4a), R⁵, R^(5a), R⁶, R^(6a), R⁷, and R^(7a) are each         independently hydrogen, alkyl, mercaptoalkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl,         cycloalkyl, aryl, alkylcarbonyl, arylcarbonyl, alkoxycarbonyl,         cyano, halogen, amino, tetrazolyl, R⁴ and R⁵ taken together,         with the ring atoms they are attached to, form a double bond, or         R⁶ and R⁷ taken together, with the ring atoms they are attached         to, form a double bond;     -   m is 0, 1, 2, 3, or 4;     -   R⁸, R⁹, R¹⁰, R¹¹, and R¹² are independently selected from a         group of hydrogen, halogen, hydroxyl, alkyl, alkoxyl,         halogenated alkyl, mercaptoalkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, cycloalkyl,         aryl, cyano, thiazolyl, triazolyl, imidazolyl, tetrazolyl,         benzothiazolyl, and benzoimidazolyl, and pharmaceutically         acceptable salts and esters thereof.

In another embodiment, the invention includes compounds of Formula V:

wherein:

A is nitrogen or oxygen;

-   -   R¹¹ is hydrogen, salt-forming cation, ester forming group,         —(CH₂)_(x)-Q, or when A is nitrogen, A and R¹¹ taken together         may be the residue of a natural or unnatural amino acid or a         salt or ester thereof;     -   Q is hydrogen, thiazolyl, triazolyl, imidazolyl, benzothiazolyl,         or benzoimidazolyl;     -   x is 0, 1, 2, 3, or 4;     -   n is 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, or 10;     -   aa is a natural or unnatural amino acid residue;     -   m is 0, 1, 2, or 3;     -   R¹⁴ is hydrogen or protecting group;     -   R¹⁵ is hydrogen, alkyl or aryl, and pharmaceutically acceptable         salts and prodrugs thereof.

In another embodiment, the invention includes compounds of the Formula VI:

wherein:

-   -   n is 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, or 10;     -   A is oxygen or nitrogen;     -   R¹¹ is hydrogen, salt-forming cation, ester forming group,         —(CH₂)_(x)-Q, or when A is nitrogen, A and R¹¹ taken together         may be the residue of a natural or unnatural amino acid or a         salt or ester thereof;     -   Q is hydrogen, thiazolyl, triazolyl, imidazolyl, benzothiazolyl,         or benzoimidazolyl;     -   x is 0, 1, 2, 3, or 4;     -   R¹⁹ is hydrogen, alkyl or aryl;     -   Y¹ is oxygen, sulfur, or nitrogen;     -   Y² is carbon, nitrogen, or oxygen;     -   R²⁰ is hydrogen, alkyl, amino, mercaptoalkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl,         cycloalkyl, aryl, arylalkyl, thiazolyl, triazolyl, tetrazolyl,         imidazolyl, benzothiazolyl, or benzoimidazolyl;     -   R²¹ is hydrogen, alkyl, mercaptoalkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl,         cycloalkyl, aryl, arylalkyl, thiazolyl, triazolyl, tetrazolyl,         imidazolyl, benzothiazolyl, benzoimidazolyl, or absent if Y² is         oxygen;     -   R²² is hydrogen, alkyl, mercaptoalkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl,         cycloalkyl, aryl, arylalkyl, thiazolyl, triazolyl, tetrazolyl,         imidazolyl, benzothiazolyl, benzoimidazolyl; or R²² is hydrogen,         hydroxyl, alkoxy or aryloxy if Y¹ is nitrogen; or R²² is absent         if Y¹ is oxygen or sulfur; or R²² and R²¹ may be linked to form         a cyclic moiety if Y¹ is nitrogen;     -   R²³ is hydrogen, alkyl, amino, mercaptoalkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl,         cycloalkyl, aryl, arylalkyl, thiazolyl, triazolyl, tetrazolyl,         imidazolyl, benzothiazolyl, or benzoimidazolyl, or absent if Y²         is nitrogen or oxygen;     -   or pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof.

In another embodiment, the invention includes compounds of Formula VII:

wherein:

-   -   n is 2, 3, or 4;     -   A is oxygen or nitrogen;     -   R¹¹ is hydrogen, salt-forming cation, ester forming group,         —(CH₂)_(x)-Q, or when A is nitrogen, A and R¹¹ taken together         may be the residue of a natural or unnatural amino acid or a         salt or ester thereof;     -   Q is hydrogen, thiazolyl, triazolyl, imidazolyl, benzothiazolyl,         or benzoimidazolyl;     -   x is 0, 1, 2, 3, or 4;     -   G is a direct bond or oxygen, nitrogen, or sulfur;     -   z is 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5;     -   m is 0 or 1;     -   R²⁴ is selected from a group consisting of hydrogen, alkyl,         mercaptoalkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, aroyl, alkylcarbonyl,         aminoalkylcarbonyl, cycloalkyl, aryl, arylalkyl, thiazolyl,         triazolyl, imidazolyl, benzothiazolyl, and benzoimidazolyl;     -   each R²⁵ is independently selected from hydrogen, halogen,         cyano, hydroxyl, alkoxy, thiol, amino, nitro, alkyl, aryl,         carbocyclic, or heterocyclic, and pharmaceutically acceptable         salts thereof.

In one embodiment, the compounds disclosed herein prevent or inhibit amyloid protein assembly into insoluble fibrils which, in vivo, are deposited in various organs, or it favors clearance of pre-formed deposits or slows deposition in patients already having deposits. In another embodiment, the compound may also prevent the amyloid protein, in its soluble, oligomeric form or in its fibrillar form, from binding or adhering to a cell surface and causing cell damage or toxicity. In yet another embodiment, the compound may block amyloid-induced cellular toxicity or macrophage activation. In another embodiment, the compound may block amyloid-induced neurotoxicity or microglial activation. In another embodiment, the compound protects cells from amyloid induced cytotoxicity of B-islet cells. In another embodiment, the compound may enhance clearance from a specific organ, e.g., the brain or it decreases concentration of the amyloid protein in such a way that amyloid fibril formation is prevented in the targeted organ.

The compounds of the invention may be administered therapeutically or prophylactically to treat diseases associated with amyloid fibril formation, aggregation or deposition. The compounds of the invention may act to ameliorate the course of an amyloid related disease using any of the following mechanisms (this list is meant to be illustrative and not limiting): slowing the rate of amyloid fibril formation or deposition; lessening the degree of amyloid deposition; inhibiting, reducing, or preventing amyloid fibril formation; inhibiting neurodegeneration or cellular toxicity induced by amyloid; inhibiting amyloid induced inflammation; enhancing the clearance of amyloid; or favoring the degradation of amyloid protein prior to its organization in fibrils.

The compounds of the invention may be administered therapeutically or prophylactically to treat diseases associated with amyloid-β fibril formation, aggregation or deposition. The compounds of the invention may act to ameliorate the course of an amyloid-, related disease using any of the following mechanisms (this list is meant to be illustrative and not limiting): slowing the rate of amyloid-β fibril formation or deposition; lessening the degree of amyloid-β deposition; inhibiting, reducing, or preventing amyloid-P fibril formation; inhibiting neurodegeneration or cellular toxicity induced by amyloid-p; inhibiting amyloid-P induced inflammation; enhancing the clearance of amyloid-P from the brain; or favoring the degradation of amyloid-P protein prior to its organization in fibrils.

Therapeutic compounds of the invention may be effective in controlling amyloid-P deposition either following their entry into the brain (following penetration of the blood brain barrier) or from the periphery. When acting from the periphery, a compound may alter the equilibrium of Aβ between the brain and the plasma so as to favor the exit of Aβ from the brain. It may also increase the catabolism of neuronal Aβ and change the rate of exit from the brain. An increase in the exit of Aβ from the brain would result in a decrease in Aβ brain and cerebral spinal fluid (CSF) concentration and therefore favor a decrease in Aβ deposition. Alternatively, compounds that penetrate the brain could control deposition by acting directly on brain Aβ e.g., by maintaining it in a non-fibrillar form, favoring its clearance from the brain, or by slowing down APP processing. These compounds could also prevent Aβ in the brain from interacting with the cell surface and therefore prevent neurotoxicity, neurodegeneration or inflammation. They may also decrease Aβ production by activated microglia. The compounds may also increase degradation by macrophages or neuronal cells.

In one embodiment, the method is used to treat Alzheimer's disease (e.g., sporadic, familial, or early AD). The method can also be used prophylactically or therapeutically to treat other clinical occurrences of amyloid-P deposition, such as in Down's syndrome individuals and in patients with cerebral amyloid angiopathy (“CAA”) or hereditary cerebral hemorrhage.

In another embodiment, the method is used to treat mild cognitive impairment. Mild Cognitive Impairment (“MCI”) is a condition characterized by a state of mild but measurable impairment in thinking skills, which is not necessarily associated with the presence of dementia. MCI frequently, but not necessarily, precedes Alzheimer's disease.

Additionally, abnormal accumulation of APP and of amyloid-P protein in muscle fibers has been implicated in the pathology of sporadic inclusion body myositis (IBM) (Askanas, et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 93, 1314-1319 (1996); Askanas, et al., Current Opinion in Rheumatology 7, 486-496 (1995)). Accordingly, the compounds of the invention can be used prophylactically or therapeutically in the treatment of disorders in which amyloid-beta protein is abnormally deposited at non-neurological locations, such as treatment of IBM by delivery of the compounds to muscle fibers.

Additionally, it has been shown that AP is associated with abnormal extracellular deposits, known as drusen, that accumulate along the basal surface of the retinal pigmented epithelium in individuals with age-related macular degeneration (AMD). AMD is a cause of irreversible vision loss in older individuals. It is believed that Aβ deposition could be an important component of the local inflammatory events that contribute to atrophy of the retinal pigmented epithelium, drusen biogenesis, and the pathogenesis of AMD (Johnson, et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 99(18), 11830-5 (2002)).

The present invention therefore relates to the use of compounds of Formulae I, II, II, IV, V, VI, VII, or otherwise described herein in the prevention or treatment of amyloid-related diseases, including, inter alia, Alzheimer's disease, cerebral amyloid angiopathy, mild cognitive impairment, inclusion body myositis, Down's syndrome, macular degeneration, as well as other types of amyloidosis like IAPP-related amyloidosis (e.g., diabetes), primary (AL) amyloidosis, secondary (AA) amyloidosis and β₂ microglobulin-related (dialysis-related) amyloidosis.

In Type II diabetes related amyloidosis (IAPP), the amyloidogenic protein IAPP induces β-islet cell toxicity when organized in oligomeric forms or in fibrils. Hence, appearance of IAPP fibrils in the pancreas of type II diabetic patients contributes to the loss of the β islet cells (Langerhans) and organ dysfunction which leads to insulinemia.

Primary amyloidosis (AL amyloid) is usually found associated with plasma cell dyscrasia and multiple myeloma. It can also be found as an idiopathic disease.

Secondary (AA) amyloidosis is usually seen associated with chronic infection (such as tuberculosis) or chronic inflammation (such as rheumatoid arthritis). A familial form of secondary amyloidosis is also seen in Familial Mediterranean Fever (FMF).

β₂ microglobulin-related (dialysis-related) amyloidosis is found in long-term hemodialysis patients. Patients undergoing long term hemodialysis will develop β₂-microglobulin fibrils in the carpal tunnel and in the collagen rich tissues in several joints. This causes severe pains, joint stifffiess and swelling. These deposits are due to the inability to maintain low levels of β2M in plasma of dialyzed patients. Increased plasma concentrations of β₂M protein will induce structural changes and may lead to the deposition of modified β₂M as insoluble fibrils in the joints.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

The present invention relates to the use of compounds of Formulae I, II, III, IV, V, VI, VII, or compounds otherwise described herein in the treatment of amyloid-related diseases. For convenience, some definitions of terms referred to herein are set forth below.

Amyloid-Related Diseases

AA (Reactive) Amyloidosis

Generally, AA amyloidosis is a manifestation of a number of diseases that provoke a sustained acute phase response. Such diseases include chronic inflammatory disorders, chronic local or systemic microbial infections, and malignant neoplasms. The most common form of reactive or secondary (AA) amyloidosis is seen as the result of long-standing inflammatory conditions. For example, patients with Rheumatoid Arthritis or Familial Mediterranean Fever (which is a genetic disease) can develop AA amyloidosis. The terms “AA amyloidosis” and “secondary (AA) amyloidosis” are used interchangeably.

AA fibrils are generally composed of 8,000 Dalton fragments (AA peptide or protein) formed by proteolytic cleavage of serum amyloid A protein (ApoSAA), a circulating apolipoprotein which is mainly synthesized in hepatocytes in response to such cytokines as IL-1, IL-6 and TNF. Once secreted, ApoSAA is complexed with HDL. Deposition of AA fibrils can be widespread in the body, with a preference for parenchymal organs. The kidneys are usually a deposition site, and the liver and the spleen may also be affected. Deposition is also seen in the heart, gastrointestinal tract, and the skin.

Underlying diseases which can lead to the development of AA amyloidosis include, but are not limited to inflammatory diseases, such as rheumatoid arthritis, juvenile chronic arthritis, ankylosing spondylitis, psoriasis, psoriatic arthropathy, Reiter's syndrome, Adult Still's disease, Behcet's syndrome, and Crohn's disease. AA deposits are also produced as a result of chronic microbial infections, such as leprosy, tuberculosis, bronchiectasis, decubitus ulcers, chronic pyelonephritis, osteomyelitis, and Whipple's disease. Certain malignant neoplasms can also result in AA fibril amyloid deposits. These include such conditions as Hodgkin's lymphoma, renal carcinoma, carcinomas of gut, lung and urogenital tract, basal cell carcinoma, and hairy cell leukemia. Other underlying conditions that may be associated with AA amyloidosis are Castleman's disease and Schnitzler's syndrome.

AL Amyloidoses (Primary Amyloidosis)

AL amyloid deposition is generally associated with almost any dyscrasia of the B lymphocyte lineage, ranging from malignancy of plasma cells (multiple myeloma) to benign monoclonal gammopathy. At times, the presence of amyloid deposits may be a primary indicator of the underlying dyscrasia. AL amyloidosis is also described in detail in Current Drug Targets, 2004, 5 159-171.

Fibrils of AL amyloid deposits are composed of monoclonal immunoglobulin light chains or fragments thereof. More specifically, the fragments are derived from the N-terminal region of the light chain (kappa or lambda) and contain all or part of the variable (V_(L)) domain thereof. Deposits generally occur in the mesenchymal tissues, causing peripheral and autonomic neuropathy, carpal tunnel syndrome, macroglossia, restrictive cardiomyopathy, arthropathy of large joints, immune dyscrasias, myelomas, as well as occult dyscrasias. However, it should be noted that almost any tissue, particularly visceral organs such as the kidney, liver, spleen and heart, may be involved.

Hereditary Systemic Amyloidoses

There are many forms of hereditary systemic amyloidoses. Although they are relatively rare conditions, adult onset of symptoms and their inheritance patterns (usually autosomal dominant) lead to persistence of such disorders in the general population. Generally, the syndromes are attributable to point mutations in the precursor protein leading to production of variant amyloidogenic peptides or proteins. Table 1 summarizes the fibril composition of exemplary forms of these disorders. TABLE 1 Fibril Composition of Exemplary Amyloid-Related Diseases Genetic Fibril Peptide/Protein Variant Clinical Syndrome ATTR protein from Transthyretin Met30, many Familial amyloid polyneuropathy (FAP), and fragments others (Mainly peripheral nerves) ATTR protein from Transthyretin Thr45, Ala60, Cardiac involvement predominant without and fragments Ser84, Met111, neuropathy, familial amyloid polyneuropathy, Ile122 senile systemic amyloidosis, Tenosynovium N-terminal fragment of Arg26 Familial amyloid polyneuropathy (FAP), Apolipoprotein A1 (apoAI) (mainly peripheral nerves) N-terminal fragment of Arg26, Arg50, Ostertag-type, non-neuropathic (predominantly Apoliproprotein A1 (AapoAI) Arg 60, others visceral involvement) AapoAII from Apolipoprotein AII Familial amyloidosis Lysozyme (Alys) Thr56, His67 Ostertag-type, non-neuropathic (predominantly visceral involvement) Fibrogen alpha chain fragment Leu554, Val Cranial neuropathy with lattic corneal 526 dystrophy Gelsolin fragment (Agel) Asn187, Cranial neuropathy with lattice corneal Tyr187 dystrophy Cystatin C fragment (ACys) Glu68 Hereditary cerebral hemorrhage (cerebral amyloid angiopathy) - Icelandic type β-amyloid protein (Aβ) derived from Gln693 Hereditary cerebral hemorrhage (cerebral Amyloid Precursor Protein (APP) amyloid angiopathy) - Dutch type β-amyloid protein (Aβ) derived from Ile717, Phe717, Familial Alzheimer's Disease Amyloid Precursor Protein (APP) Gly717 β-amyloid protein (Aβ) derived from Gln618 Alzheimer's disease, Down's syndrome, Amyloid Precursor Protein (APP), hereditary cerebral hemorrhage with e.g., bPP 695 amyloidosis, Dutch type β-amyloid protein (Aβ) derived from Asn670, Familial Dementia - probably Alzheimer's Amyloid Precursor Protein (APP) Leu671 Disease Prion Protein (PrP, APrP^(SC)) derived Leu102, Familial Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease; from Prp precursor protein (51-91 Val167, Gerstmann-Straussler-Scheinker syndrome insert) Asn178, (hereditary spongiform encephalopathies, prion Lys200 diseases) AA derived from Serum amyloid A Familial Mediterranean fever, predominant protein (ApoSAA) renal involvement (autosomal recessive) AA derived from Serum amyloid A Muckle-Well's syndrome, nephropathy, protein (ApoSAA) deafness, urticaria, limb pain Unknown Cardiomyopathy with persistent atrial standstill Unknown Cutaneous deposits (bullous, papular, pustulodermal) AH amyloid protein, derived from AγI Myeloma associated amyloidosis immunoglobulin heavy chain (gamma I) ACal amyloid protein from (Pro) calcitonin Medullary carcinomas of the thyroid (pro)calcitonin AANF amyloid protein from atrial Isolated atrial amyloid natriuretic factor Apro from Prolactin Prolactinomas Abri/ADan from ABri peptide British and Danish familial Dementia Data derived from Tan SY, Pepys MB. Amyloidosis. Histopathology, 25(5), 403-414 (November 1994), WHO/IUIS Nomenclature Subcommittee, Nomenclature of Amyloid and Amyloidosis. Bulletin of the World Health Organisation 1993; 71: 10508; and Merlini et al., Clin Chem Lab Med 2001; 39(11): 1065-75.

The data provided in Table 1 are exemplary and are not intended to limit the scope of the invention. For example, more than 40 separate point mutations in the transthyretin gene have been described, all of which give rise to clinically similar forms of familial amyloid polyneuropathy.

In general, any hereditary amyloid disorder can also occur sporadically, and both hereditary and sporadic forms of a disease present with the same characteristics with regard to amyloid. For example, the most prevalent form of secondary AA amyloidosis occurs sporadically, e.g. as a result of ongoing inflammation, and is not associated with Familial Mediterranean Fever. Thus general discussion relating to hereditary amyloid disorders below can also be applied to sporadic amyloidoses.

Transthyretin (TTR) is a 14 kiloDalton protein that is also sometimes referred to as prealbumin. It is produced by the liver and choroid plexus, and it functions in transporting thyroid hormones and vitamin A. At least 50 variant forms of the protein, each characterized by a single amino acid change, are responsible for various forms of familial amyloid polyneuropathy. For example, substitution of proline for leucine at position 55 results in a particularly progressive form of neuropathy; substitution of methionine for leucine at position 111 resulted in a severe cardiopathy in Danish patients.

Amyloid deposits isolated from heart tissue of patients with systemic amyloidosis have revealed that the deposits are composed of a heterogeneous mixture of TTR and fragments thereof, collectively referred to as ATTR, the full length sequences of which have been characterized. ATTR fibril components can be extracted from such plaques and their structure and sequence determined according to the methods known in the art (e.g., Gustavsson, A., et al., Laboratory Invest. 73: 703-708, 1995; Kametani, F., et al., Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 125: 622-628, 1984; Pras, M., et al., PNAS 80: 539-42, 1983).

Persons having point mutations in the molecule apolipoprotein Al (e.g., Gly→Arg26; Trp→Arg50; Leu→Arg60) exhibit a form of amyloidosis (“Ostertag type”) characterized by deposits of the protein apolipoprotein AI or fragments thereof (AApoAI). These patients have low levels of high density lipoprotein (HDL) and present with a peripheral neuropathy or renal failure.

A mutation in the alpha chain of the enzyme lysozyme (e.g., Ile→Thr56 or Asp→His57) is the basis of another form of Östertag-type non-neuropathic hereditary amyloid reported in English families. Here, fibrils of the mutant lysozyme protein (Alys) are deposited, and patients generally exhibit impaired renal function. This protein, unlike most of the fibril-forming proteins described herein, is usually present in whole (unfragmented) form (Benson, M. D., et al. CIBA Fdn. Symp. 199: 104-131, 1996).

Immunoglobulin light chains tend to form aggregates in various morphologies, including fibrillar (e.g., AL amyloidosis and AH amyloidosis), granular (e.g., light chain deposition disease (LCDD), heavy chain deposition disease (HCDD), and light-heavy chain deposition disease (LHCDD)), crystalline (e.g., Acquired Farconi's Syndome), and microtubular (e.g., Cryoglobulinemia). AL and AH amyloidosis is indicated by the formation of insoluble fibrils of immunoglobulin light chains and heavy chain, respectively, and/or their fragments. In AL fibrils, lambda (λ) chains such as λ VI chains (λ6 chains), are found in greater concentrations than kappa (κ) chains. XIII chains are also slightly elevated. Merlini et al., CLIN CHEM LAB MED 39(11):1065-75 (2001). Heavy chain amyloidosis (AH) is generally characterized by aggregates of gamma chain amyloid proteins of the IgG1 subclass. Eulitz et al., PROC NATL ACAD SCI USA 87:6542-46 (1990).

Comparison of amyloidogenic to non-amyloidogenic light chains has revealed that the former can include replacements or substitutions that appear to destabilize the folding of the protein and promote aggregation. AL and LCDD have been distinguished from other amyloid diseases due to their relatively small population monoclonal light chains, which are manufactured by neoplastic expansion of an antibody-producing B cell. AL aggregates typically are well-ordered fibrils of lambda chains. LCDD aggregates are relatively amorphous aggregations of both kappa and lambda chains, with a majority being kappa, in some cases KWV. Bellotti et al., JOURNAL OF STRUCTURAL BIOLOGY 13:280-89 (2000). Comparison of amyloidogenic and non-amyloidogenic heavy chains in patients having AH amyloidosis has revealed missing and/or altered components. Eulitz et al., PROC NATL ACAD SCI USA 87:6542-46 (1990) (pathogenic heavy chain characterized by significantly lower molecular mass than non-amyloidogenic heavy chains); and Solomon et al. AM J HEMAT 45(2) 171-6 (1994) (amyloidogenic heavy chain characterized as consisting solely of the VH-D portion of the non-amyloidogenic heavy chain).

Accordingly, potential methods of detecting and monitoring treatment of subjects having or at risk of having AL, LCDD, AH, and the like, include but are not limited to immunoassaying plasma or urine for the presence or depressed deposition of amyloidogenic light or heavy chains, e.g., amyloid A, amyloid K, amyloid KIV, amyloid oy, or amyloid y.

Brain Amyloidosis

The most frequent type of amyloid in the brain is composed primarily of Aβ peptide fibrils, resulting in dementia associated with sporadic (non-hereditary) Alzheimer's disease. In fact, the incidence of sporadic Alzheimer's disease greatly exceeds forms shown to be hereditary. Nevertheless, fibril peptides forming plaques are very similar in both types. Brain amyloidosis includes those diseases, conditions, pathologies, and other abnormalities of the structure or function of the brain, including components thereof, in which the causative agent is amyloid. The area of the brain affected in an amyloid-related disease may be the stroma including the vasculature or the parenchyma including functional or anatomical regions, or neurons themselves. A subject need not have received a definitive diagnosis of a specifically recognized amyloid-related disease. The term “amyloid related disease” includes brain amyloidosis.

Amyloid-β peptide (“Aβ”) is a 39-43 amino acid peptide derived by proteolysis from a large protein known as Beta Amyloid Precursor Protein (“βAPP”). Mutations in βAPP result in familial forms of Alzheimer's disease, Down's syndrome, cerebral amyloid angiopathy, and senile dementia, characterized by cerebral deposition of plaques composed of Aβ fibrils and other components, which are described in further detail below. Known mutations in APP associated with Alzheimer's disease occur proximate to the cleavage sites of β or γ-secretase, or within Aβ. For example, position 717 is proximate to the site of gamma-secretase cleavage of APP in its processing to Aβ, and positions 670/671 are proximate to the site of β-secretase cleavage. Mutations at any of these residues may result in Alzheimer's disease, presumably by causing an increase in the amount of the 42/43 amino acid form of Aβ generated from APP. The familial form of Alzheimer's disease represents only 10% of the subject population. Most occurrences of Alzheimer's disease are sporadic cases where APP and Aβ do not possess any mutation. The structure and sequence of Aβ peptides of various lengths are well known in the art. Such peptides can be made according to methods known in the art, or extracted from the brain according to known methods (e.g., Glenner and Wong, Biochem. Biophys. Res. Comm. 129, 885-90 (1984); Glenner and Wong, Biochem. Biophys. Res. Comm. 122, 1131-35 (1984)). In addition, various forms of the peptides are commercially available. APP is expressed and constitutively catabolized in most cells. The dominant catabolic pathway appears to be cleavage of APP within the Aβ sequence by an enzyme provisionally termed α-secretase, leading to release of a soluble ectodomain fragment known as APPsα. This cleavage precludes the formation of Aβ peptide. In contrast to this non-amyloidogenic pathway, APP can also be cleaved by enzymes known as β- and γ-secretase at the N- and C-termini of the Aβ, respectively, followed by release of Aβ into the extracellular space. To date, BACE has been identified as β-secretase (Vasser, et al., Science 286:735-741, 1999) and presenilins have been implicated in tsecretase activity (De Strooper, et al., Nature 391, 387-90 (1998)). The 39-43 amino acid Aβ peptide is produced by sequential proteolytic cleavage of the amyloid precursor protein (APP) by the β and γ secretases enzyme. Although Aβ40 is the predominant form produced, 5-7% of total Aβ exists as Aβ42 (Cappai et al., Int. J. Biochem. Cell Biol. 31. 885-89 (1999)).

The length of the Aβ peptide appears to dramatically alter its biochemical/biophysical properties. Specifically, the additional two amino acids at the C-terminus of Aβ42 are very hydrophobic, presumably increasing the propensity of Aβ42 to aggregate. For example, Jarrett, et al. demonstrated that A042 aggregates very rapidly in vitro compared to Aβ40, suggesting that the longer forms of Aβ may be the important pathological proteins that are involved in the initial seeding of the neuritic plaques in Alzheimer's disease (Jarrett, et al., Biochemistry 32, 4693-97 (1993); Jarrett, et al., Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci. 695, 144-48 (1993)). This hypothesis has been further substantiated by the recent analysis of the contributions of specific forms of Aβ in cases of genetic familial forms of Alzheimer's disease (“FAD”). For example, the “London” mutant form of APP (APPV7171) linked to FAD selectively increases the production of Aβ 42/43 forms versus AP 40 (Suzuki, et al., Science 264, 1336-40 (1994)) while the “Swedish” mutant form of APP (APPK670N/M671L) increases levels of both Aβ40 and Aβ42/43 (Citron, et al., Nature 360, 672-674 (1992); Cai, et al., Science 259, 514-16, (1993)). Also, it has been observed that FAD-linked mutations in the Presenilin-1 (“PS 1”) or Presenilin-2 (“PS2”) genes will lead to a selective increase in Aβ42/43 production but not Aβ40 (Borchelt, et al., Neuron 17, 1005-13 (1996)). This finding was corroborated in transgenic mouse models expressing PS mutants that demonstrate a selective increase in brain Aβ42 (Borchelt, op cit.; Duff, et al., Neurodegeneration 5(4), 293-98 (1996)). Thus the leading hypothesis regarding the etiology of Alzheimer's disease is that an increase in Aβ42 brain concentration due to an increased production and release of Aβ42 or a decrease in clearance (degradation or brain clearance) is a causative event in the disease pathology.

Multiple mutation sites in either Aβ or the APP gene have been identified and are clinically associated with either dementia or cerebral hemorrhage. Exemplary CAA disorders include, but are not limited to, hereditary cerebral hemorrhage with amyloidosis of Icelandic type (HCHWA-I); the Dutch variant of HCHWA (HCHWA-D; a mutation in Aβ); the Flemish mutation of Aβ; the Arctic mutation of Aβ; the Italian mutation of Aβ; the Iowa mutation of Aβ; familial British dementia; and familial Danish dementia. CAA may also be sporadic. As used herein, the terms “β amyloid,” “amyloid-β,” and the like refer to amyloid β proteins or peptides, amyloid β precursor proteins or peptides, intermediates, and modifications and fragments thereof, unless otherwise specifically indicated. In particular, “Aβ” refers to any peptide produced by proteolytic processing of the APP gene product, especially peptides which are associated with amyloid pathologies, including Aβ1-39, Aβ1-40, Aβ1-41, Aβ1-42, and Aβ1-43. For convenience of nomenclature, “Aβ1-42” may be referred to herein as “Aβ(1-42)” or simply as “Aβ42” or “Aβ₄₂” (and likewise for any other amyloid peptides discussed herein). As used herein, the terms “β amyloid,” “amyloid-β,” and “Aβ” are synonymous.

Unless otherwise specified, the term “amyloid” refers to amyloidogenic proteins, peptides, or fragments thereof which can be soluble (e.g., monomeric or oligomeric) or insoluble (e.g., having fibrillary structure or in amyloid plaque). See, e.g., M P Lambert, et al., Proc. Nat'l Acad. Sci. USA 95, 6448-53 (1998). “Amyloidosis” or “amyloid disease” or “amyloid-related disease” refers to a pathological condition characterized by the presence of amyloid fibers. “Amyloid” is a generic term referring to a group of diverse but specific protein deposits (intracellular or extracellular) which are seen in a number of different diseases. Though diverse in their occurrence, all amyloid deposits have common morphologic properties, stain with specific dyes (e.g., Congo red), and have a characteristic red-green birefringent appearance in polarized light after staining. They also share common ultrastructural features and common X-ray diffraction and infrared spectra.

Gelsolin is a calcium binding protein that binds to fragments and actin filaments. Mutations at position 187 (e.g., Asp→Asn; Asp→Tyr) of the protein result in a form of hereditary systemic amyloidosis, usually found in patients from Finland, as well as persons of Dutch or Japanese origin. In afflicted individuals, fibrils formed from gelsolin fragments (Agel), usually consist of amino acids 173-243 (68 kDa carboxyterminal fragment) and are deposited in blood vessels and basement membranes, resulting in corneal dystrophy and cranial neuropathy which progresses to peripheral neuropathy, dystrophic skin changes and deposition in other organs. (Kangas, H., et al. Human Mol. Genet. 5(9): 1237-1243, 1996).

Other mutated proteins, such as mutant alpha chain of fibrinogen (AfibA) and mutant cystatin C (Acys) also form fibrils and produce characteristic hereditary disorders. AfibA fibrils form deposits characteristic of a normeuropathic hereditary amyloid with renal disease; Acys deposits are characteristic of a hereditary cerebral amyloid angiopathy reported in Iceland (Isselbacher, Harrison's Principles of Internal Medicine, McGraw-Hill, San Francisco, 1995; Benson, et al.). In at least some cases, patients with cerebral amyloid angiopathy (CAA) have been shown to have amyloid fibrils containing a non-mutant form of cystatin C in conjunction with amyloid beta protein (Nagai, A., et al. Molec. Chem. Neuropathol. 33: 63-78, 1998).

Certain forms of prion disease are now considered to be heritable, accounting for up to 15% of cases, which were previously thought to be predominantly infectious in nature. (Baldwin, et al., in Research Advances in Alzheimer's Disease and Related Disorders, John Wiley and Sons, New York, 1995). In hereditary and sporadic prion disorders, patients develop plaques composed of abnormal isoforms of the normal prion protein (PrP^(Sc)).

A predominant mutant isoform, PrP^(Sc), also referred to as AScr, differs from the normal cellular protein in its resistance to protease degradation, insolubility after detergent extraction, deposition in secondary lysosomes, post-translational synthesis, and high O-pleated sheet content. Genetic linkage has been established for at least five mutations resulting in Creutzfeldt-Jacob disease (CJD), Gerstmann-Straiussler-Scheinker syndrome (GSS), and fatal familial insomnia (FFI). (Baldwin, supra) Methods for extracting fibril peptides from scrapie fibrils, determining sequences and making such peptides are known in the art (e.g., Beekes, M., et al. J. Gen. Virol. 76: 2567-76, 1995).

For example, one form of GSS has been linked to a PrP mutation at codon 102, while telencephalic GSS segregates with a mutation at codon 117. Mutations at codons 198 and 217 result in a form of GSS in which neuritic plaques characteristic of Alzheimer's disease contain PrP instead of Aβ peptide. Certain forms of familial CJD have been associated with mutations at codons 200 and 210; mutations at codons 129 and 178 have been found in both familial CJD and FFI. (Baldwin, supra).

Cerebral Amyloidosis

Local deposition of amyloid is common in the brain, particularly in elderly individuals. The most frequent type of amyloid in the brain is composed primarily of Aβ peptide fibrils, resulting in dementia or sporadic (non-hereditary) Alzheimer's disease. The most common occurrences of cerebral amyloidosis are sporadic and not familial. For example, the incidence of sporadic Alzheimer's disease and sporadic CAA greatly exceeds the incidence of familial AD and CAA. Moreover, sporadic and familial forms of the disease cannot be distinguished from each other (they differ only in the presence or absence of an inherited genetic mutation); for example, the clinical symptoms and the amyloid plaques formed in both sporadic and familial AD are very similar, if not identical.

Cerebral amyloid angiopathy (CAA) refers to the specific deposition of amyloid fibrils in the walls of leptomingeal and cortical arteries, arterioles and veins. It is commonly associated with Alzheimer's disease, Down's syndrome and normal aging, as well as with a variety of familial conditions related to stroke or dementia (see Frangione et al., Amyloid: J. Protein Folding Disord. 8, Suppl. 1, 36-42 (2001)). CAA can occur sporadically or be hereditary.

Senile Systemic Amyloidosis

Amyloid deposition, either systemic or focal, increases with age. For example, fibrils of wild type transthyretin (TTR) are commonly found in the heart tissue of elderly individuals. These may be asymptomatic, clinically silent, or may result in heart failure. Asymptomatic fibrillar focal deposits may also occur in the brain (Aβ), corpora amylacea of the prostate (β₂ microglobulin), joints and seminal vesicles.

Dialysis-Related Amyloidosis (DRA)

Plaques composed of β₂ microglobulin (β₂M) fibrils commonly develop in patients receiving long term hemodialysis or peritoneal dialysis. β₂ microglobulin is a 11.8 kiloDalton polypeptide and is the light chain of Class I MHC antigens, which are present on all nucleated cells. Under normal circumstances, β₂M is usually distributed in the extracellular space unless there is an impaired renal function, in which case β₂M is transported into tissues where it polymerizes to form amyloid fibrils. Failure of clearance such as in the case of impaired renal function, leads to deposition in the carpal tunnel and other sites (primarily in collagen-rich tissues of the joints). Unlike other fibril proteins, β₂M molecules are not produced by cleavage of a longer precursor protein and are generally present in unfragmented form in the fibrils. (Benson, supra). Retention and accumulation of this amyloid precursor has been shown to be the main pathogenic process underlying DRA. DRA is characterized by peripheral joint osteoarthropathy (e.g., joint stiffness, pain, swelling, etc.). Isoforms of β₂M, glycated β₂M, or polymers of β₂M in tissue are the most amyloidogenic form (as opposed to native (β₂M). Unlike other types of amyloidosis, β₂M is confined largely to osteoarticular sites. Visceral depositions are rare. Occasionally, these deposits may involve blood vessels and other important anatomic sites.

Despite improved dialysis methods for removal of β₂M, the majority of patients have plasmatic β₂M concentrations that remain dramatically higher than normal. These elevated β₂M concentrations generally lead to Diabetes-Related Amyloidosis (DRA) and cormorbidities that contribute to mortality.

Islet Amyloid Polypeptide and Diabetes

Islet hyalinosis (amyloid deposition) was first described over a century ago as the presence of fibrous protein aggregates in the pancreas of patients with severe hyperglycemia (Opie, E L., J Exp. Med. 5: 397-428, 1901). Today, islet amyloid, composed predominantly of islet amyloid polypeptide (IAPP), or amylin, is a characteristic histopathological marker in over 90% of all cases of Type II diabetes (also known as Non-Insulin Dependent Diabetes, or NIDDM). These fibrillar accumulations result from the aggregation of the islet amyloid polypeptide (IAPP) or amylin, which is a 37 amino acid peptide, derived from a larger precursor peptide, called pro-IAPP.

IAPP is co-secreted with insulin in response to O-cell secretagogues. This pathological feature is not associated with insulin-dependent (Type I) diabetes and is a unifying characteristic for the heterogeneous clinical phenotypes diagnosed as NIDDM (Type II diabetes).

Longitudinal studies in cats and iimmunocytochemical investigations in monkeys have shown that a progressive increase in islet amyloid is associated with a dramatic decrease in the population of insulin-secreting β-cells and increased severity of the disease. More recently, transgenic studies have strengthened the relationship between IAPP plaque formation and β-cell apoptosis and dysfunction, indicating that amyloid deposition is a principal factor in increasing severity of Type II diabetes.

IAPP has also been shown to induce β-islet cell toxicity in vitro, indicating that appearance of IAPP fibrils in the pancreas of Type II or Type I diabetic patients (post-islet transplantation) could contribute to the loss of the β-cell islets (Langerhans) and organ dysfunction. In patients with Type II diabetes, the accumulation of pancreatic IAPP leads to formation of oligomeric IAPP, leading to a buildup of IAPP-amyloid as insoluble fibrous deposits which eventually destroys the insulin-producing β cells of the islet, resulting in β cell depletion and failure (Westermark, P., Grimelius, L., Acta Path. Microbiol. Scand., sect. A. 81: 291-300, 1973; de Koning, EJP., et al., Diabetologia 36: 378-384,1993; and Lorenzo, A., et al., Nature 368: 756-760, 1994). Accumulation of IAPP as fibrous deposits can also have an impact on the ratio of pro-IAPP to IAPP normally found in plasma by increasing this ratio due to the trapping of IAPP in deposits. Reduction of β cell mass can be manifested by hyperglycemia and insulinemia. This β-cell mass loss can lead to a need for insulin therapy.

Diseases caused by the death or malfutctioning of a particular type or types of cells can be treated by transplanting into the patient healthy cells of the relevant type of cell. This approach has been used for Type I diabetes patients. Often pancreatic islet cells from a donor are cultured in vitro prior to transplantation, to allow them to recover after the isolation procedure or to reduce their immunogenicity. However, in many instances islet cell transplantation is unsuccessful, due to death of the transplanted cells. One reason for this poor success rate is IAPP, which organizes into toxic oligomers. Toxic effects may result from intracellular and extracellular accumulation of fibril oligomers. The IAPP oligomers can form fibrils and become toxic to the cells in vitro. In addition, IAPP fibrils are likely to continue to grow after the cells are transplanted and cause death or dysfunction of the cells. This may occur even when the cells are from a healthy donor and the patient receiving the transplant does not have a disease that is characterized by the presence of fibrils. For example, compounds of the present invention may also be used in preparing tissues or cells for transplantation according to the methods described in International Patent Application (PCT) number WO 01/003680.

The compounds of the invention may also stabilize the ratio of the concentrations of Pro-IAPP/IAPP, pro-Insulin/Insulin and C-peptide levels. In addition, as biological markers of efficacy, the results of the different tests, such as the arginine-insulin secretion test, the glucose tolerance test, insulin tolerance and sensitivity tests, could all be used as markers of reduced β-cell mass and/or accumulation of amyloid deposits. Such class of drugs could be used together with other drugs targeting insulin resistance, hepatic glucose production, and insulin secretion. Such compounds might prevent insulin therapy by preserving β-cell function and be applicable to preserving islet transplants.

Hormone-Derived Amyloidoses

Endocrine organs may harbor amyloid deposits, particularly in aged individuals. Hormone-secreting tumors may also contain hormone-derived amyloid plaques, the fibrils of which are made up of polypeptide hormones such as calcitonin (medullary carcinoma of the thyroid), and atrial natriuretic peptide (isolated atrial amyloidosis). Sequences and structures of these proteins are well known in the art.

Miscellaneous Amyloidoses

There are a variety of other forms of amyloid disease that are normally manifest as localized deposits of amyloid. In general, these diseases are probably the result of the localized production or lack of catabolism of specific fibril precursors or a predisposition of a particular tissue (such as the joint) for fibril deposition. Examples of such idiopathic deposition include nodular AL amyloid, cutaneous amyloid, endocrine amyloid, and tumor-related amyloid. Other amyloid related diseases include those described in Table 1, such as familial amyloid polyneuropathy (FAP), senile systemic amyloidosis, Tenosynovium, familial amyloidosis, Ostertag-type, non-neuropathic amyloidosis, cranial neuropathy, hereditary cerebral hemorrhage, familial dementia, chronic dialysis, familial Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease; Gerstmann-Straussler-Scheinker syndrome, hereditary spongiform encephalopathies, prion diseases, familial Mediterranean fever, Muckle-Well's syndrome, nephropathy, deafness, urticaria, limb pain, cardiomyopathy, cutaneous deposits, multiple myeloma, benign monoclonal gammopathy, maccoglobulinaemia, myeloma associated amyloidosis, medullary carcinomas of the thyroid, isolated atrial amyloid, and diabetes.

The compounds of the invention may be administered therapeutically or prophylactically to treat diseases associated with amyloid fibril formation, aggregation or deposition, regardless of the clinical setting. The compounds of the invention may act to ameliorate the course of an amyloid related disease using any of the following mechanisms, such as, for example but not limited to: slowing the rate of amyloid fibril formation or deposition; lessening the degree of amyloid deposition; inhibiting, reducing, or preventing amyloid fibril formation; inhibiting amyloid induced inflammation; enhancing the clearance of amyloid from, for example, the brain; or protecting cells from amyloid induced (oligomers or fibrillar) toxicity.

In an embodiment, the compounds of the invention may be administered therapeutically or prophylactically to treat diseases associated with amyloid-P fibril formation, aggregation or deposition. The compounds of the invention may act to, ameliorate the course of an amyloid-P related disease using any of the following mechanisms (this list is meant to be illustrative and not limiting): slowing the rate of amyloid-P fibril formation or deposition; lessening the degree of amyloid-β deposition; inhibiting, reducing, or preventing amyloid-β fibril formation; inhibiting neurodegeneration or cellular toxicity induced by amyloid-β; inhibiting amyloid-β induced inflammation; enhancing the clearance of amyloid-β from the brain; or favoring greater catabolism of Aβ.

Compounds of the invention may be effective in controlling amyloid-β deposition either following their entry into the brain (following penetration of the blood brain barrier) or from the periphery. When acting from the periphery, a compound may alter the equilibrium of Aβ between the brain and the plasma so as to favor the exit of Aβ from the brain. An increase in the exit of Aβ from the brain would result in a decrease in Aβ brain concentration and therefore favor a decrease in Aβ deposition. In addition, compounds that penetrate the brain may control deposition by acting directly on brain Aβ, e.g., by maintaining it in a non-fibrillar form or favoring its clearance from the brain. The compounds may slow down APP processing; may increase degradation of Aβ fibrils by macrophages or by neuronal cells; or may decrease Aβ production by activated microglia. These compounds could also prevent Aβ in the brain from interacting with the cell surface and therefore prevent neurotoxicity, neurodegeneration, or inflammation.

In a preferred embodiment, the method is used to treat Alzheimer's disease (e.g., sporadic or familial AD). The method can also be used prophylactically or therapeutically to treat other clinical occurrences of amyloid-β deposition, such as in Down's syndrome individuals and in patients with cerebral amyloid angiopathy (“CAA”), hereditary cerebral hemorrhage, or early Alzheimer's disease.

In another embodiment, the method is used to treat mild cognitive impairment. Mild Cognitive Impairment (“MCI”) is a condition characterized by a state of mild but measurable impairment in thinking skills, which is not necessarily associated with the presence of dementia. MCI frequently, but not necessarily, precedes Alzheimer's disease.

Additionally, abnormal accumulation of APP and of amyloid-β protein in muscle fibers has been implicated in the pathology of sporadic inclusion body myositis (IBM) (Askanas, V., et al. (1996) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 93: 1314-1319; Askanas, V. et al. (1995) Current Opinion in Rheumatology 7: 486-496). Accordingly, the compounds of the invention can be used prophylactically or therapeutically in the treatment of disorders in which amyloid-beta protein is abnormally deposited at non-neurological locations, such as treatment of EBM by delivery of the compounds to muscle fibers.

Additionally, it has been shown that AP is associated with abnormal extracellular deposits, known as drusen, that accumulate along the basal surface of the retinal pigmented epithelium in individuals with age-related macular degeneration (ARMD). ARMD is a cause of irreversible vision loss in older individuals. It is believed that Aβ deposition could be an important component of the local inflammatory events that contribute to atrophy of the retinal pigmented epithelium, drusen biogenesis, and the pathogenesis of ARMD (Johnson, et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 99(18), 11830-5 (2002)).

In another embodiment, the invention also relates to a method of treating or preventing an amyloid-related disease in a subject (preferably a human) comprising administering to the subject a therapeutic amount of a compound according to the following Formulae or otherwise described herein, such that amyloid fibril formation or deposition, neurodegeneration, or cellular toxicity is reduced or inhibited. In another embodiment, the invention relates to a method of treating or preventing an amyloid-related disease in a subject (preferably a human) comprising administering to the subject a therapeutic amount of a compound according to the following Formulae or otherwise described herein, such that cognitive function is improved or stabilized or further deterioration in cognitive function is prevented, slowed, or stopped in patients with brain amyloidosis, e.g., Alzheimer's disease, Down's syndrome or cerebral amyloid angiopathy. These compounds can also improve quality of daily living in these subjects.

The therapeutic compounds of the invention may treat amyloidosis related to type II diabetes by, for example, stabilizing glycemia, preventing or reducing the loss of β cell mass, reducing or preventing hyperglycemia due to loss of β cell mass, and modulating (e.g., increasing or stabilizing) insulin production. The compounds of the invention may also stabilize the ratio of the concentrations of pro-IAPP/IAPP.

The therapeutic compounds of the invention may treat AA (secondary) amyloidosis and/or AL (primary) amyloidosis, by stabilizing renal function, decreasing proteinuria, increasing creatinine clearance (e.g., by at least 50% or greater or by at least 100% or greater), by leading to remission of chronic diarrhea or weight gain (e.g., 10% or greater), or by reducing serum creatinine. Visceral amyloid content as determined, e.g., by SAP scintigraphy may also be reduced.

Compounds of the Invention

The present invention relates, at least in part, to the use of certain chemical compounds (and pharmaceutical formulations thereof) in the prevention or treatment of amyloid-related diseases, including, inter alia, Alzheimer's disease, cerebral amyloid angiopathy, inclusion body myositis, Down's syndrome, diabetes related amyloidosis, hemodialysis-related amyloidosis (β2M), primary amyloidosis (e.g., λ or κ chain-related), familial amyloid polyneuropathy (FAP), senile systemic amyloidosis, familial amyloidosis, Ostertag-type non-neuropathic amyloidosis, cranial neuropathy, hereditary cerebral hemorrhage, familial dementia, chronic dialysis, familial Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease, Gerstmann-Straussler-Scheinker syndrome, hereditary spongiform encephalopathies, prion diseases, familial Mediterranean fever, Muckle-Well's syndrome, nephropathy, deafness, urticaria, limb pain, cardiomyopathy, cutaneous deposits, multiple myeloma, benign monoclonal gammopathy, maccoglobulinaemia, myeloma associated amyloidosis, medullary carcinomas of the thyroid, and isolated atrial amyloid.

The chemical structures herein are drawn according to the conventional standards known in the art. Thus, where an atom, such as a carbon atom, as drawn appears to have an unsatisfied valency, then that valency is assumed to be satisfied by a hydrogen atom even though that hydrogen atom is not necessarily explicitly drawn. The structures of some of the compounds of this invention include stereogenic carbon atoms. It is to be understood that isomers arising from such asymmetry (e.g., all enantiomers and diastereomers) are included within the scope of this invention unless indicated otherwise. That is, unless otherwise stipulated, any chiral carbon center may be of either (R)- or (S)-stereochemistry. Such isomers can be obtained in substantially pure form by classical separation techniques and by stereochemically-controlled synthesis. Furthermore, alkenes can include either the E- or Z-geometry, where appropriate. In addition, the compounds of the present invention may exist in unsolvated as well as solvated forms with acceptable solvents such as water, THF, ethanol, and the like. In general, the solvated forms are considered equivalent to the unsolvated forms for the purposes of the present invention.

A “small molecule” refers to a compound that is not itself the product of gene transcription or translation (e.g., protein, RNA, or DNA) and preferably has a low molecular weight, e.g., less than about 2500 amu.

In general, the term “nucleophile” is art-recognized to mean a chemical group having a reactive pair of electrons that reacts with a compound by displacing a leaving group (commonly another nucleophile), such as commonly occur in aliphatic chemistry as unimolecular (known as “S_(N)1”) or bimolecular (“S_(N)2”) reactions. Examples of nucleophiles include uncharged compounds such as amines, mercaptans, and alcohols, and charged groups such as alkoxides, thiolates, carbanions, and a variety of organic and inorganic anions. Illustrative anionic nucleophiles include, inter alia, simple anions such as azide, cyanide, thiocyanate, acetate, formate, or chloroformate, and bisulfite. Organomretallic reagents such as organocuprates, organozincs, organolithiums, Grignard reagents, enolates, and acetylides, will under appropriate reaction conditions, be suitable nucleophiles.

Similarly, an “electrophile” means an atom, molecule, or ion able to accept an electron pair, particularly a pair of electrons from a nucleophile, such as typically occurs during an electrophilic substitution reaction. In an electrophilic substitution reaction, an electrophile binds to a substrate with the expulsion of another electrophile, e.g., the substitution of a proton by another electrophile such as a nitronium ion on an aromatic substrate (e.g., benzene). Electrophiles include cyclic compounds such as epoxides, aziridines, episulfides, cyclic sulfates, carbonates, lactones, and lactams; and non-cyclic electrophiles include sulfates, sulfonates (e.g., tosylates), chlorides, bromides, and iodides. Generally, an electrophile may be a saturated carbon atom (e.g., a methylene group) bonded to a leaving group; however, an electrophile may also be an unsaturated group, such as an aldehyde, ketone, ester, or conjugated (α,β-unsaturated) analog thereof, which upon reaction with a nucleophile forms an adduct.

The term “leaving group” generally refers to a group that is readily displaced and substituted by a nucleophile (e.g., an amine, a thiol, an alcohol, or cyanide). Such leaving groups are well known and include carboxylates, N-hydroxysuccinimide (“NHS”), N-hydroxybenzotriazole, a halogen (fluorine, chlorine, bromine, or iodine), alkoxides, and thioalkoxides. A variety of sulfur-based leaving groups are routinely used in synthetic chemistry, including alkane sulfonyloxy groups (e.g., C₁-C₄ alkane such as methane sulfonyloxy, ethane sulfonyloxy, propane sulfonyloxy, and butane sulfonyloxy groups) and the halogenated analogs (e.g., halogeno(C₁-C₄ alkane) sulfonyloxy groups, such as trifluoromethane sulfonyloxy (i.e., triflate), 2,2,2-trichloroethane sulfonyloxy, 3,3,3-tribromopropane sulfonyloxy, and 4,4,4-trifluorobutane sulfonyloxy groups), as well as arylsulfonyloxy groups (e.g., C₆-C₁₀ aryl optionally substituted with 1 to 3 C₁-C₄ alkyl groups, such as benzene sulfonyloxy, α-naphthylsulfonyloxy, β-naphthylsulfonyloxy, p-toluenesulfonyloxy (i.e., tosylates), 4-tert-butylbenzene sulfonyloxy, mesitylene sulfonyloxy, and 6-ethyl-α-naphthylsulfonyloxy groups).

“Activated esters” may be represented by the formula —COL, where L is a leaving group, typical examples of which include N-hydroxysulfosuccinimidyl and N-hydroxysuccinimidyl groups; aryloxy groups substituted with electron-withdrawing groups (e.g., p-nitro, pentafluoro, pentachloro, p-cyano, or p-trifluoromethyl); and carboxylic acids activated by a carbodiimide to form an anhydride or mixed anhydride, e.g., —OCOR^(a) or —OCNR^(a)NHR^(b), where R^(a) and R^(b) are independently C₁-C₆ alkyl, C₅-C₈ alkyl (e.g., cyclohexyl), C₁-C₆ perfluoroalkyl, or C₁-C₆ alkoxy groups. An activated ester may be formed in situ or may be an isolable reagent. Sulfosuccinimidyl esters, pentafluorothiophenol esters, and sulfotetrafluorophenol are preferred activated esters. However, the ester leaving group may be, for example, substituted or unsubstituted C₁-C₆ alkyl (such as methyl, ethyl, propyl, isopropyl, butyl, isobutyl, sec-butyl, tert-butyl, pentyl, or hexyl), or substituted or unsubstituted C₆-C₁₄ aryl or heterocyclic groups, such as 2-fluoroethyl, 2-chloroethyl, 2-bromoethyl, 2,2-dibromoethyl, 2,2,2-trichloroethyl, 3-fluoropropyl, 4-chlorobutyl, methoxymethyl, 1,1-dimethyl-1-methoxymethyl, ethoxymethyl, N-propoxymethyl, isopropoxymethyl, N-butoxymethyl, tert-butoxymethyl, 1-ethoxyethyl, 1-methyl-1-methoxyethyl, 1-(isopropoxy)ethyl, 3-methoxypropyl-4-methoxybutyl, fluoromethoxymethyl, 2,2,2-trichloroethoxymethyl, bis(2-chloroethoxy)methyl, 3-fluoropropoxymethyl, 4-chlorobutoxyethyl, dibromomethoxyethyl, 2-chloroethoxypropyl, fluoromethoxybutyl, 2-methoxyethoxymethyl, ethoxymethoxyethyl, methoxyethoxypropyl, methoxyethoxybutyl, benzyl, phenethyl, 3-phenylpropyl, 4-phenylbutyl, α-naphthylmethyl, β-naphthylmethyl, diphenylmethyl, triphenylmethyl, α-naphthyldipheylmethyl, 9-anthrylmethyl, 4-methylbenzyl, 2,4,6-trimethylbenzyl, 3,4,5-trimethylbenzyl, 4-methoxybenzyl, 4-methoxyphenyldiphenylmethyl, 2-nitrobenzyl, 4-nitrobenzyl, 4-chlorobenzyl, 4-bromobenzyl, 4-cyanobenzyl, 4-cyanobenzyldiphenylmethyl, or bis(2-nitrophenyl)methyl groups.

The term “electron-withdrawing group” is art-recognized and describes the ability of a substituent to attract valence electrons (e.g., pi-electrons) from neighboring atoms, e.g., the substituent is more electronegative than neighboring atoms, or it draws electrons to itself more than a hydrogen atom would at the same position. The Hammett sigma value (σ) is an accepted measure of a group's electron-donating and withdrawing ability, especially the sigma para value (σ_(p)). See, e.g., “Advanced Organic Chemistry” by J. March, 5^(th) Ed., John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, pp.368-75 (2001). The Hammett constant values are generally negative for electron-donating groups (σ_(p)=−0.66 for NH₂) and positive for electron-withdrawing groups (σ_(p)=0.78 for a nitro group), σ_(p) indicating para substitution. Exemplary electron-withdrawing groups include nitro, acyl (ketone), formyl (aldehyde), sulfonyl, trifluoromethyl, halogeno (e.g., chloro and fluoro), and cyano groups, among others. Conversely, an “electron-donating group” designates a substituent that contributes electrons more than hydrogen would if it occupied the same position in the molecule. Examples include amino (including alkylamino and dialkylamino), aryl, alkoxy (including aralkoxy), aryloxy, mercapto and alkylthio, and hydroxyl groups, among others.

As used herein, “alkyl” groups include saturated hydrocarbons having one or more carbon atoms, including straight-chain alkyl groups (e.g., methyl, ethyl, propyl, butyl, pentyl, hexyl, heptyl, octyl, nonyl, decyl, etc.), cyclic alkyl groups (or “cycloalkyl” or “alicyclic” or “carbocyclic” groups) (e.g., cyclopropyl, cyclopentyl, cyclohexyl, cycloheptyl, cyclooctyl, etc.), branched-chain alkyl groups (isopropyl, tert-butyl, sec-butyl, isobutyl, etc.), and alkyl-substituted alkyl groups (e.g., alkyl-substituted cycloalkyl groups and cycloalkyl-substituted alkyl groups). The term “aliphatic group” includes organic moieties characterized by straight or branched-chains, typically having between 1 and 22 carbon atoms. In complex structures, the chains may be branched, bridged, or cross-linked. Aliphatic groups include alkyl groups, alkenyl groups, and alkynyl groups.

In certain embodiments, a straight-chain or branched-chain alkyl group may have 30 or fewer carbon atoms in its backbone, e.g., C₁-C₃₀ for straight-chain or C₃-C₃₀ for branched-chain. In certain embodiments, a straight-chain or branched-chain alkyl group may have 20 or fewer carbon atoms in its backbone, e.g., C₁-C₂₀ for straight-chain or C₃-C₂₀ for branched-chain, and more preferably 18 or fewer. Likewise, preferred cycloalkyl groups have from 4-10 carbon atoms in their ring structure, and more preferably have 4-7 carbon atoms in the ring structure. The term “lower alkyl” refers to alkyl groups having from 1 to 6 carbons in the chain, and to cycloalkyl groups having from 3 to 6 carbons in the ring structure.

Unless the number of carbons is otherwise specified, “lower” as in “lower aliphatic,” “lower alkyl,” “lower alkenyl,” etc. as used herein means that the moiety has at least one and less than about 8 carbon atoms. In certain embodiments, a straight-chain or branched-chain lower alkyl group has 6 or fewer carbon atoms in its backbone (e.g., C₁-C₆ for straight-chain, C₃-C₆ for branched-chain), and more preferably 4 or fewer. Likewise, preferred cycloalkyl groups have from 3-8 carbon atoms in their ring structure, and more preferably have 5 or 6 carbons in the ring structure. The term “C₁-C₆” as in “C₁-C₆ alkyl” means alkyl groups containing 1 to 6 carbon atoms.

Moreover, unless otherwise specified the term alkyl includes both “unsubstituted alkyls” and “substituted alkyls,” the latter of which refers to alkyl groups having substituents replacing one or more hydrogens on one or more carbons of the hydrocarbon backbone. Such substituents may include, for example, alkenyl, alkynyl, halogeno, hydroxyl, alkylcarbonyloxy, arylcarbonyloxy, alkoxycarbonyloxy, aryloxy, aryloxycarbonyloxy, carboxylate, alkylcarbonyl, arylcarbonyl, alkoxycarbonyl, aminocarbonyl, alkylaminocarbonyl, dialkylaminocarbonyl, alkylthiocarbonyl, alkoxyl, phosphate, phosphonato, phosphinato, cyano, amino (including alkyl amino, dialkylamino, arylamino, diarylamino, and alkylarylamino), acylamino (including alkylcarbonylamino, arylcarbonylamino, carbamoyl and ureido), imino, sulfhydryl, alkylthio, arylthio, thiocarboxylate, sulfates, alkylsulfinyl, sulfonato, sulfamoyl, sulfonamido, nitro, trifluoromethyl, cyano, azido, heterocyclic, alkylaryl, or aromatic (including heteroaromatic) groups.

An “arylalkyl” group is an alkyl group substituted with an aryl group (e.g., phenylmethyl (i.e., benzyl)). An “alkylaryl” moiety is an aryl group substituted with an alkyl group (e.g., p-methylphenyl (i.e., p-tolyl)). The term “n-alkyl” means a straight-chain (i.e., unbranched) unsubstituted alkyl group. An “alkylene” group is a divalent analog of the corresponding alkyl group. The terms “alkenyl” and “alkynyl” refer to unsaturated aliphatic groups analogous to alkyls, but which contain at least one double or triple carbon-carbon bond respectively. Suitable alkenyl and alkynyl groups include groups having 2 to about 12 carbon atoms, preferably from 2 to about 6 carbon atoms.

The term “aromatic group” or “aryl group” includes unsaturated and aromatic cyclic hydrocarbons as well as unsaturated and aromatic heterocycles containing one or more rings. Aryl groups may also be fused or bridged with alicyclic or heterocyclic rings that are not aromatic so as to form a polycycle (e.g., tetralin). An “arylene” group is a divalent analog of an aryl group. Aryl groups can also be fused or bridged with alicyclic or heterocyclic rings which are not aromatic so as to form a polycycle (e.g., tetralin).

The term “heterocyclic group” includes closed ring structures analogous to carbocyclic groups in which one or more of the carbon atoms in the ring is an element other than carbon, for example, nitrogen, sulfur, or oxygen. Heterocyclic groups may be saturated or unsaturated. Additionally, heterocyclic groups (such as pyrrolyl, pyridyl, isoquinolyl, quinolyl, purinyl, and furyl) may have aromatic character, in which case they may be referred to as “heteroaryl” or “heteroaromatic” groups.

Unless otherwise stipulated, aryl and heterocyclic (including heteroaryl) groups may also be substituted at one or more constituent atoms. Examples of heteroaromatic and heteroalicyclic groups may have 1 to 3 separate or fused rings with 3 to about 8 members per ring and one or more N, O, or S heteroatoms. In general, the term “heteroatom” includes atoms of any element other than carbon or hydrogen, preferred examples of which include nitrogen, oxygen, sulfur, and phosphorus. Heterocyclic groups may be saturated or unsaturated or aromatic.

Examples of heterocycles include, but are not limited to, acridinyl; azocinyl; benzimidazolyl; benzofuranyl; benzothiofuranyl; benzothiophenyl; benzoxazolyl; benzthiazolyl; benztriazolyl; benztetrazolyl; benzisoxazolyl; benzisothiazolyl; benzimidazolinyl; carbazolyl; 4aH-carbazolyl; carbolinyl; chromanyl; chromenyl; cinnolinyl; decahydroquinolinyl; 2H,6H-1,5,2-dithiazinyl; dihydrofuro[2,3-b]tetrahydrofuran; furanyl; furazanyl; imidazolidinyl; imidazolinyl; imidazolyl; 1H-indazolyl; indolenyl; indolinyl; indolizinyl; indolyl; 3H-indolyl; isobenzofuranyl; isochromanyl; isoindazolyl; isoindolinyl; isoindolyl; isoquinolinyl; isothiazolyl; isoxazolyl; methylenedioxyphenyl; morpholinyl; naphthyridinyl; octahydroisoquinolinyl; oxadiazolyl; 1,2,3-oxadiazolyl; 1,2,4-oxadiazolyl; 1,2,5-oxadiazolyl; 1,3,4-oxadiazolyl; oxazolidinyl; oxazolyl; oxazolidinyl; pyrimidinyl; phenanthridinyl; phenanthrolinyl; phenazinyl; phenothiazinyl; phenoxathiinyl; phenoxazinyl; phthalazinyl; piperazinyl; piperidinyl; piperidonyl; 4-piperidonyl; piperonyl; pteridinyl; purinyl; pyranyl; pyrazinyl; pyrazolidinyl; pyrazolinyl; pyrazolyl; pyridazinyl; pyridooxazole; pyridoimidazole; pyridothiazole; pyridinyl; pyridyl; pyrimidinyl; pyrrolidinyl; pyrrolinyl; 2H-pyrrolyl; pyrrolyl; quinazolinyl; quinolinyl; 4H-quinolizinyl; quinoxalinyl; quinuclidinyl; tetrahydrofuranyl; tetrahydroisoquinolinyl; tetrahydroquinolinyl; tetrazolyl; 6H-1,2,5-thiadiazinyl; 1,2,3-thiadiazolyl; 1,2,4-thiadiazolyl; 1,2,5-thiadiazolyl; 1,3,4-thiadiazolyl; thianthrenyl; thiazolyl; thienyl; thienothiazolyl; thienooxazolyl; thienoimidazolyl; thiophenyl; triazinyl; 1,2,3-triazolyl; 1,2,4-triazolyl; 1,2,5-triazolyl; 1,3,4-triazolyl; and xanthenyl. Preferred heterocycles include, but are not limited to, pyridinyl; furanyl; thienyl; pyrrolyl; pyrazolyl; pyrrolidinyl; imidazolyl; indolyl; benzimidazolyl; 1H-indazolyl; oxazolidinyl; benzotriazolyl; benzisoxazolyl; oxindolyl; benzoxazolinyl; and isatinoyl groups. Also included are fused ring and spiro compounds containing, for example, the above heterocycles.

A common hydrocarbon aryl group is a phenyl group having one ring. Two-ring hydrocarbon aryl groups include naphthyl, indenyl, benzocyclooctenyl, benzocycloheptenyl, pentalenyl, and azulenyl groups, as well as the partially hydrogenated analogs thereof such as indanyl and tetrahydronaphthyl. Exemplary three-ring hydrocarbon aryl groups include acephthylenyl, fluorenyl, phenalenyl, phenanthrenyl, and anthracenyl groups.

Aryl groups also include heteromonocyclic aryl groups, i.e., single-ring heteroaryl groups, such as thienyl, furyl, pyranyl, pyrrolyl, imidazolyl, pyrazolyl, pyridinyl, pyrazinyl, pyrimidinyl, and pyridazinyl groups; and oxidized analogs thereof such as pyridonyl, oxazolonyl, pyrazolonyl, isoxazolonyl, and thiazolonyl groups. The corresponding hydrogenated (i.e., non-aromatic) heteromonocylic groups include pyrrolidinyl, pyrrolinyl, imidazolidinyl, imidazolinyl, pyrazolidinyl, pyrazolinyl, piperidyl and piperidino, piperazinyl, and morpholino and morpholinyl groups.

Aryl groups also include fused two-ring heteroaryls such as indolyl, isoindolyl, indolizinyl, indazolyl, quinolinyl, isoquinolinyl, phthalazinyl, quinoxalinyl, quinazolinyl, cinnolinyl, chromenyl, isochromenyl, benzothienyl, benzimidazolyl, benzothiazolyl, purinyl, quinolizinyl, isoquinolonyl, quinolonyl, naphthyridinyl, and pteridinyl groups, as well as the partially hydrogenated analogs such as chromanyl, isochromanyl, indolinyl, isoindolinyl, and tetrahydroindolyl groups. Aryl groups also include fused three-ring groups such as phenoxathiinyl, carbazolyl, phenanthridinyl, acridinyl, perimidinyl, phenanthrolinyl, phenazinyl, phenothiazinyl, phenoxazinyl, and dibenzofuranyl groups.

Some typical aryl groups include substituted or unsubstituted 5- and 6-membered single-ring groups. In another aspect, each Ar group may be selected from the group consisting of substituted or unsubstituted phenyl, pyrrolyl, furyl, thienyl, thiazolyl, isothiaozolyl, imidazolyl, triazolyl, tetrazolyl, pyrazolyl, oxazolyl, isooxazolyl, pyridinyl, pyrazinyl, pyridazinyl, and pyrimidinyl groups. Further examples include substituted or unsubstituted phenyl, 1-naphthyl, 2-naphthyl, biphenyl, 1-pyrrolyl, 2-pyrrolyl, 3-pyrrolyl, 3-pyrazolyl, 2-imidazolyl, 4-imidazolyl, pyrazinyl, 2-oxazolyl, 4-oxazolyl, 5-oxazolyl, 3-isoxazolyl, 4-isoxazolyl, 5-isoxazolyl, 2-thiazolyl, 4-thiazolyl, 5-thiazolyl, 2-furyl, 3-furyl, 2-thienyl, 3-thienyl, 2-pyridyl, 3-pyridyl, 4-pyridyl, 2-pyrimidyl, 4-pyrimidyl, 5-benzothiazolyl, purinyl, 2-benzimidazolyl, 5-indolyl, 1-isoquinolyl, 5-isoquinolyl, 2-quinoxalinyl, 5-quinoxalinyl, 3-quinolyl, and 6-quinolyl groups.

The term “amine” or “amino,” as used herein, refers to an unsubstituted or substituted moiety of the formula —NR^(a)R^(b), in which R^(a) and R^(b) are each independently hydrogen, alkyl, aryl, or heterocyclyl, or R^(a) and R^(b), taken together with the nitrogen atom to which they are attached, form a cyclic moiety having from 3 to 8 atoms in the ring. Thus, the term amino includes cyclic amino moieties such as piperidinyl or pyrrolidinyl groups, unless otherwise stated. Thus, the term “alkylamino” as used herein means an alkyl group having an amino group attached thereto. Suitable alkylamino groups include groups having 1 to about 12 carbon atoms, preferably from 1 to about 6 carbon atoms. The term amino includes compounds or moieties in which a nitrogen atom is covalently bonded to at least one carbon or heteroatom. The term “dialkylamino” includes groups wherein the nitrogen atom is bound to at least two alkyl groups. The term “arylamino” and “diarylamino” include groups wherein the nitrogen is bound to at least one or two aryl groups, respectively. The term “alkylarylamino” refers to an amino group which is bound to at least one alkyl group and at least one aryl group. The term “alkaminoalkyl” refers to an alkyl, alkenyl, or alkynyl group substituted with an alkylamino group. The term “amide” or “aminocarbonyl” includes compounds or moieties which contain a nitrogen atom which is bound to the carbon of a carbonyl or a thiocarbonyl group.

The term “alkylthio” refers to an alkyl group, having a sulfhydryl group attached thereto. Suitable alkylthio groups include groups having 1 to about 12 carbon atoms, preferably from 1 to about 6 carbon atoms.

The term “alkylcarboxyl” as used herein means an alkyl group having a carboxyl group attached thereto.

The term “alkoxy” as used herein means an alkyl group having an oxygen atom attached thereto. Representative alkoxy groups include groups having 1 to about 12 carbon atoms, preferably 1 to about 6 carbon atoms, e.g., methoxy, ethoxy, propoxy, tert-butoxy and the like. Examples of alkoxy groups include methoxy, ethoxy, isopropyloxy, propoxy, butoxy, and pentoxy groups. The alkoxy groups can be substituted with groups such as alkenyl, alkynyl, halogen, hydroxyl, alkylcarbonyloxy, arylcarbonyloxy, alkoxycarbonyloxy, aryloxycarbonyloxy, carboxylate, alkylcarbonyl, arylcarbonyl, alkoxycarbonyl, aminocarbonyl, alkylaminocarbonyl, dialkylaminocarbonyl, alkylthiocarbonyl, alkoxyl, phosphate, phosphonato, phosphinato, cyano, amino (including alkyl amino, dialkylamino, arylamino, diarylamino, and alkylarylamino), acylamino (including alkylcarbonylamino, arylcarbonylamino, carbamoyl and ureido), imino, sulfhydryl, alkylthio, arylthio, thiocarboxylate, sulfates, alkylsulfinyl, sulfonato, sulfamoyl, sulfonamido, nitro, trifluoromethyl, cyano, azido, heterocyclyl, alkylaryl, or an aromatic or heteroaromatic moieties. Examples of halogen substituted alkoxy groups include, but are not limited to, fluoromethoxy, difluoromethoxy, trifluoromethoxy, chloromethoxy, dichloromethoxy, trichloromethoxy, etc., as well as perhalogenated alkyloxy groups.

The term “acylamino” includes moieties wherein an amino moiety is bonded to an acyl group. For example, the acylamino group includes alkylcarbonylamino, arylcarbonylamino, carbamoyl and ureido groups.

The terms “alkoxyalkyl”, “alkylaminoalkyl” and “thioalkoxyalkyl” include alkyl groups, as described above, which further include oxygen, nitrogen or sulfur atoms replacing one or more carbons of the hydrocarbon backbone.

The term “carbonyl” or “carboxy” includes compounds and moieties which contain a carbon connected with a double bond to an oxygen atom. Examples of moieties which contain a carbonyl include aldehydes, ketones, carboxylic acids, amides, esters, anhydrides, etc.

The term “ether” or “ethereal” includes compounds or moieties which contain an oxygen bonded to two carbon atoms. For example, an ether or ethereal group includes “alkoxyalkyl” which refers to an alkyl, alkenyl, or alkynyl group substituted with an alkoxy group.

A “sulfonate” group is a —SO₃H or —SO₃ ⁻X⁺ group bonded to a carbon atom, where X⁺ is a cationic counter ion group. Similarly, a “sulfonic acid” compound has a —SO₃H or —SO₃ ⁻X⁺ group bonded to a carbon atom, where X⁺ is a cationic group. A “sulfate” as used herein is a —OSO₃H or —OSO₃ ⁻X⁺ group bonded to a carbon atom, and a “sulfuric acid” compound has a —SO₃H or —OSO₃ ⁻X⁺ group bonded to a carbon atom, where X⁺ is a cationic group. According to the invention, a suitable cationic group may be a hydrogen atom. In certain cases, the cationic group may actually be another group on the therapeutic compound that is positively charged at physiological pH, for example an amino group.

A “counter ion” is required to maintain electroneutrality. Examples of anionic counter ions include halide, triflate, sulfate, nitrate, hydroxide, carbonate, bicarbonate, acetate, phosphate, oxalate, cyanide, alkylcarboxylate, N-hydroxysuccinimide, N-hydroxybenzotriazole, alkoxide, thioalkoxide, alkane sulfonyloxy, halogenated alkane sulfonyloxy, arylsulfonyloxy, bisulfate, oxalate, valerate, oleate, palmitate, stearate, laurate, borate, benzoate, lactate, citrate, maleate, fumarate, succinate, tartrate, naphthylate mesylate, glucoheptonate, or lactobionate. Compounds containing a cationic group covalently bonded to an anionic group may be referred to as an “internal salt.”

The term “nitro” means —NO₂; the term “halogen” or “halogeno” or “halo” designates —F, —Cl, —Br or —I; the term “thiol,” “thio,” or “mercapto” means SH; and the term “hydroxyl” or “hydroxy” means —OH.

The term “acyl” refers to a carbonyl group that is attached through its carbon atom to a hydrogen (i.e., a formyl), an aliphatic group (e.g., acetyl), an aromatic group (e.g., benzoyl), and the like. The term “substituted acyl” includes acyl groups where one or more of the hydrogen atoms on one or more carbon atoms are replaced by, for example, an alkyl group, alkynyl group, halogen, hydroxyl, alkylcarbonyloxy, arylcarbonyloxy, alkoxycarbonyloxy, aryloxycarbonyloxy, carboxylate, alkylcarbonyl, arylcarbonyl, alkoxycarbonyl, aminocarbonyl, alkylaminocarbonyl, dialkylaminocarbonyl, alkylthiocarbonyl, alkoxyl, phosphate, phosphonato, phosphinato, cyano, amino (including alkyl amino, dialkylamino, arylamino, diarylamino, and alkylarylamino), acylamino (including alkylcarbonylamino, arylcarbonylamino, carbamoyl and ureido), imino, sulfhydryl, alkylthio, arylthio, thiocarboxylate, sulfates, alkylsulfinyl, sulfonato, sulfamoyl, sulfonamido, nitro, trifluoromethyl, cyano, azido, heterocyclyl, alkylaryl, or an aromatic or heteroaromatic moiety.

Unless otherwise specified, the chemical moieties of the compounds of the invention, including those groups discussed above, may be “substituted or unsubstituted.” In some embodiments, the term “substituted” means that the moiety has substituents placed on the moiety other than hydrogen (i.e., in most cases, replacing a hydrogen), which allow the molecule to perform its intended function. Examples of substituents include moieties selected from straight or branched alkyl (preferably C₁-C₅), cycloalkyl (preferably C₃-C₈), alkoxy (preferably C₁-C₆), thioalkyl (preferably C₁-C₆), alkenyl (preferably C₂-C₆), alkynyl (preferably C₂-C₆), heterocyclic, carbocyclic, aryl (e.g., phenyl), aryloxy (e.g., phenoxy), aralkyl (e.g., benzyl), aryloxyalkyl (e.g., phenyloxyalkyl), arylacetamidoyl, alkylaryl, heteroaralkyl, alkylcarbonyl and arylcarbonyl or other such acyl group, heteroarylcarbonyl, and heteroaryl groups, as well as (CR′R″)₀₋₃NR′R″ (e.g., —NH₂), (CR′R″)₀₋₃CN (e.g., —CN), —NO₂, halogen (e.g., —F, —Cl, —Br, or —I), (CR′R″)₀₋₃C(halogen)₃ (e.g., —CF₃), (CR′R″)₀₋₃CH(halogen)₂, (CR′R″)₀₋₃CH₂(halogen), (CR′R″)₀₋₃CONR′R″, (CR′R″)₀₋₃(CNH)NR′R″, (CR′R″)₀₋₃S(O)₁₋₂NR′R″, (CR′R″)₀₋₃CHO, (CR′R″)₀₋₃O(CR′R″)₀₋₃H, (CR′R″)₀₋₃S(O)₀₋₃R′ (e.g., —SO₃H), (CR′R″)₀₋₃O(CR′R″)₀₋₃H (e.g., —CH₂OCH₃ and —OCH₃), (CR′R″)₀₋₃S(CR′R″)₀₋₃H (e.g., —SH and —SCH₃), (CR′R″)₀₋₃OH (e.g., —OH), (CR′R″)₀₋₃COR′, (CR′R″)₀₋₃(substituted or unsubstituted phenyl), (CR′R″)₀₋₃(C₃-C₈ cycloalkyl), (CR′R″)₀₋₃CO₂R′ (e.g., —CO₂H), and (CR′R″)₀₋₃OR′ groups, wherein R′ and R″ are each independently hydrogen, a C₁-C₅ alkyl, C₂-C₅ alkenyl, C₂-C₅ alkynyl, or aryl group; or the side chain of any naturally occurring amino acid.

In another embodiment, a substituent may be selected from straight or branched alkyl (preferably C₁-C₅), cycloalkyl (preferably C₃-C₈), alkoxy (preferably C₁-C₆), thioalkyl (preferably C₁-C₆), alkenyl (preferably C₂-C₆), alkynyl (preferably C₂-C₆), heterocyclic, carbocyclic, aryl (e.g., phenyl), aryloxy (e.g., phenoxy), aralkyl (e.g., benzyl), aryloxyalkyl (e.g., phenyloxyalkyl), arylacetamidoyl, alkylaryl, heteroaralkyl, alkylcarbonyl and arylcarbonyl or other such acyl group, heteroarylcarbonyl, or heteroaryl group, (CR′R″)₀₋₁₀NR′R″ (e.g., —NH₂), (CR′R″)₀₋₁₀CN (e.g., —CN), NO₂, halogen (e.g., F, Cl, Br, or I), (CR′R″)₀₋₁₀C(halogen)₃ (e.g., —CF₃), (CR′R″)₀₋₁₀CH(halogen)₂, (CR′R″)₀₋₁₀CH₂(halogen), (CR′R″)₀₋₁₀CONR′R″, (CR′R″)₀₋₁₀O(CNH)NR′R″, (CR′R″)₀₋₁₀S(O)₁₋₂NR′R″, (CR′R″)₀₋₁₀CHO, (CR′R′″)₀₋₁₀O(CR′R″)₀₋₁₀H, (CR′R″)₀₋₁₀S(O)₀₋₃R′ (e.g., —SO₃H), (CR′R″)₀₋₁₀O(CR′R″)₀₋₁₀H (e.g., —CH₂OCH₃ and —OCH₃), (CR′R″)₀₋₁₀S(CR′R″)₀₋₃H (e.g., —SH and —SCH₃), (CR′R″)₀₋₁₀OH (e.g., —OH), (CR′R″)₀₋₁₀COR′, (CR′R″)₀₋₁₀ (substituted or unsubstituted phenyl), (CR′R″)₀₋₁₀(C₃-C₈ cycloalkyl), (CR′R″)₀₋₁₀CO₂R′ (e.g., —CO₂H), or (CR′R″)₀₋₁₀OR′ group, or the side chain of any naturally occurring amino acid; wherein R′ and R″ are each independently hydrogen, a C₁-C₅ alkyl, C₂-C₅ alkenyl, C₂-C₅ alkynyl, or aryl group, or R′ and R″ taken together are a benzylidene group or a —(CH₂)₂O(CH₂)₂— group.

It will be understood that “substitution” or “substituted with” includes the implicit proviso that such substitution is in accordance with the permitted valence of the substituted atom and the substituent, and that the substitution results in a stable compound, e.g., which does not spontaneously undergo transformation such as by rearrangement, cyclization, elimination, etc. As used herein, the term “substituted” is meant to include all permissible substituents of organic compounds. In a broad aspect, the permissible substituents include acyclic and cyclic, branched and unbranched, carbocyclic and heterocyclic, aromatic and nonaromatic substituents of organic compounds. The permissible substituents can be one or more.

In some embodiments, a “substituent” may be selected from the group consisting of, for example, halogeno, trifluoromethyl, nitro, cyano, C₁-C₆ alkyl, C₂-C₆ alkenyl, C₂-C₆ alkynyl, C₁-C₆ alkylcarbonyloxy, arylcarbonyloxy, C₁-C₆ alkoxycarbonyloxy, aryloxycarbonyloxy, C₁-C₆ alkylcarbonyl, C₁-C₆ alkoxycarbonyl, C₁-C₆ alkoxy, C₁-C₆ alkylthio, arylthio, heterocyclyl, aralkyl, and aryl (including heteroaryl) groups.

In one embodiment, the invention pertains to compounds of Formula I:

wherein:

R¹ is a substituted or unsubstituted cycloalkyl, heterocyclic, aryl, arylcycloalkyl, bicyclic or tricyclic ring, a bicyclic or tricyclic fused ring group, or a substituted or unsubstituted C₂-C₁₀ alkyl group;

-   -   R² is selected from a group consisting of hydrogen, alkyl,         mercaptoalkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, cycloalkyl, aryl, arylalkyl,         thiazolyl, triazolyl, imidazolyl, benzothiazolyl, and         benzoimidazolyl;     -   Y is SO₃ ⁻X⁺, OSO₃ ⁻X⁺, or SSO₃ ⁻X⁺;     -   X⁺ is hydrogen, a cationic group, or ester-forming group; and     -   each of L¹ and L² is independently a substituted or         unsubstituted C₁-C₅ alkyl group or absent, or a pharmaceutically         acceptable salt thereof, provided that when R₁ is alkyl, L¹ is         absent.

In a further embodiment, the invention pertains to compounds of Formula II:

wherein:

-   -   R¹ is a substituted or unsubstituted cyclic, bicyclic,         tricyclic, or benzoheterocyclic group or a substituted or         unsubstituted C₂-C₁₀ alkyl group;     -   R² is hydrogen, alkyl, mercaptoalkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl,         cycloalkyl, aryl, arylalkyl, thiazolyl, triazolyl, imidazolyl,         benzothiazolyl, benzoimidazolyl, or linked to R¹ to form a         heterocycle;     -   Y is SO₃ ⁻X⁺, OSO₃ ⁻X⁺, or SSO₃ ⁻X⁺;     -   X⁺ is hydrogen, a cationic group, or an ester forming moiety;     -   m is 0 or 1;     -   n is 1, 2, 3, or 4;     -   L is substituted or unsubstituted C₁-C₃ alkyl group or absent,         or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, provided that         when R¹ is alkyl, L is absent.

In a further embodiment, R² is hydrogen. In another further embodiment, R¹ is straight chain alkyl, for example, ethyl, n-pentyl, n-heptyl, or n-octyl. In another embodiment, R¹ is t-butyl. In yet another alternate embodiment, R¹ is C₇-C₁₀ bicycloalkyl or tricycloalkyl, such as, for example, tricyclo[3.3.1.0^(3,7)]decyl (or adamantyl), bicyclo[2.1.2]heptyl, or indolyl. In another alternate embodiment, R¹ is tetrahydronaphthyl.

In one embodiment, L² is —(CH₂)₃—. In another further embodiment, L² is —(CH₂)₄— or —(CH₂)₅—. In yet another further embodiment, L₂ is —(CH₂)₂—. In yet another further embodiment, L² is substituted alkyl, e.g., —CH₂—(CHOH)—CH₂—.

In another embodiment, L¹ is CH₂CH₂ or absent.

In a further embodiment, R¹ is branched alkyl, e.g., t-butyl. In another embodiment, R¹ is adamanyl. In another embodiment, R¹ is cyclic alkyl, e.g., cyclopropyl, cyclohexyl, cycloheptyl, cyclo-octyl, etc. The cycloalkyl moieties may be substituted further, e.g., with additional alkyl groups or other groups which allow the molecule to perform its intended function. In another embodiment, R¹ is alkyl substituted with a propargyl moiety (e.g., HC≡C—). In another embodiment, R¹ is cyclohexyl substituted withone or more methyl or propargyl groups.

In other embodiments, L¹ is a C₁-C₂ alkyl linker group (e.g., —CH(CH₃)— or —(CH₂)₂—. In a further embodiment, R¹ is phenyl. In certain embodiments, R¹ is substituted with a methoxy group. In other embodiments, L¹ is C₃, e.g., —(CH₂)₃— or C(CH₃)₂—. In certain embodiments, L¹ is substituted, e.g., with an alkoxy, carboxylate (—COOH), benzyl, amido (—C═O—NH—), or ester (C═O—C—O) group. In certain embodiment, the ester group is a methyl, ethyl, propyl, butyl, cyclohexyl, or benzyl ester. In other embodiments, the ester group may be propenyl. In other embodiments, L¹ is substituted with a carboxylate group. In a further embodiment, R¹ is substituted with a subsituted amido group, wherein the amido group is substituted with an alkyl, e.g., methyl, ethyl, propyl, butyl, pentyl, or hexyl group. In another embodiment, the alkyl R¹ group is a substituted with a —C═O—NH—OH, C═O—NH₂, or an amido group. In certain embodiments, the amido group is substituted with an alkyl (e.g., methyl, ethyl, propyl, butyl, pentyl, hexyl, cyclohexyl, etc.), a benzyl or an aryl group. In another embodiment, the amido group is substituted with a —CH(CH₂)₂ group. R¹ itself may be substituted with a phenyl or may be branched or straight chain alkyl. In certain embodiments, R¹ may also be substituted with a thioether moiety. Examples of thioethers include S—Me, S—Et, etc. In certain embodiments, the alkyl R¹ moiety is substituted with both an aryl or a thioether moiety and an amido moiety. In other embodiments, the alkyl R¹ moiety may be substituted with both a thioether and a carboxylate moiety. In other embodiments, alkyl R¹ groups are substituted with hydroxyl. R¹ groups, e.g., alkyl R¹ groups, may also be substituted with both thioether and hydroxyl groups. In other embodiments, R¹ groups, e.g., alkyl R¹ groups are substituted with cyano groups. Examples of R¹ groups including —CN moieties include —C(CH₃)₂CN, cyclohexyl substituted with one or more cyano groups, etc.

In other embodiments, alkyl R¹ groups are substituted with aryl groups. The aryl groups may be substituted phenyl, for example. The substituted phenyl may be substituted with one or more substituents such as hydroxy, cyano and alkoxy. In other embodiments, alkyl R¹ groups are substituted with tetrazolyl or substituted or unsubstituted benzyl.

In a further embodiment, L¹ is —C(CH₃)₂—(CH₂)—. In another embodiment, L¹ is —(C(CH₃)₂—CHOH—. In yet another embodiment, L¹ is —(C(CH₃)₂CH(OMe)—. In another embodiment, R¹ is substituted or unsubstituted phenyl. In a further embodiment, R¹ is para-substituted phenyl. Examples of substitutuents include but are not limited to fluorine, chlorine, bromine, iodine, methyl, t-butyl, alkoxy, methoxy, etc. In other embodiment, R¹ is substituted at the meta position. Examples of substituents include methoxy, chloro, methyl, t-butyl, fluoro, alkyl, alkoxy, iodo, trifluoroalkyl, methoxy, etc. In another embodiment, R¹ is phenyl substituted in the ortho position, with similar substituents. In another embodiment, L¹ comprises a cycloalkyl moiety, e.g., cyclopentyl. In another embodiment, L¹ comprises an alkyenyl group and, optionally, a substituted aryl group, with substittuents similar to those described about.

In certain embodiments, R¹ is cyclopropyl or cyclohexyl. In certain embodiments, the cyclopropyl or cyclohexyl group is subsituted with an ether group or an alkyl group. In certain further embodiments, the ether group is a benzyl ether group.

In another embodiment, wherein R¹ is alkyl, it is substituted with groups such as phenyl, or hydroxy.

In other embodiments, the compound of the invention is selected from the group consisting of:

-   -   and pharmaceutically acceptable salts, esters, and prodrugs         thereof.

In another embodiment, the invention pertains to compounds of Formula III:

wherein:

-   -   A is nitrogen or oxygen;     -   R¹¹ is hydrogen, salt-forming cation, ester forming group,         —(CH₂)_(x)-Q, or when A is nitrogen, A and R¹¹ taken together         may be the residue of a natural or unnatural amino acid or a         salt or ester thereof;     -   Q is hydrogen, thiazolyl, triazolyl, imidazolyl, benzothiazolyl,         or benzoimidazolyl;     -   x is 0, 1, 2, 3, or 4;     -   n is 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, or 10;     -   R³, R^(3a), R⁴, R^(4a), R⁵, R^(5a), R⁶, R^(6a), R⁷ and R^(7a)         are each independently hydrogen, alkyl, mercaptoalkyl, alkenyl,         alkynyl, cycloalkyl, aryl, alkylcarbonyl, arylcarbonyl,         alkoxycarbonyl, cyano, halogen, amino, tetrazolyl, or two R         groups on adjacent ring atoms taken together with the ring atoms         form a double bond, provided that one of R³, R^(3a), R⁴, R^(4a),         R⁵, R^(5a), R⁶, R^(6a), R⁷ and R^(7a) is a moiety of the Formula         IIIa:     -   wherein:     -   m is 0, 1, 2, 3, or 4;     -   R^(A), R^(B), R^(C), R^(D), and R^(E) are independently selected         from a group of hydrogen, halogen, hydroxyl, alkyl, alkoxyl,         halogenated alkyl, mercaptoalkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, cycloalkyl,         aryl, cyano, thiazolyl, triazolyl, imidazolyl, tetrazolyl,         benzothiazolyl, and benzoimidazolyl; and pharmaceutically         acceptable salts and esters thereof, provided that said compound         is not 3-(4-phenyl-1, 2, 3,         6-tetrahydro-1-pyridyl)-1-propanesulfonic acid.

In a further embodiment, n is 2, 3 or 4.

In another embodiment, R¹¹ is a salt-forming cation. Examples of salt forming cations include pharmaceutically acceptable salts described herein as well as lithium, sodium, potassium, magnesium, calcium, barium, zinc, iron, and ammonium. In another embodiment, R¹¹ is an ester-forming group. An ester-forming group includes groups which when bound form an ester. Examples of such groups include substituted or unsubstituted alkyl, aryl, alkenyl, alkynyl, or cycloalkyl. In another embodiment, A is oxygen.

In another embodiment, R³ and R⁴ are taken together with the carbon atoms to which they are attached to form a double bond. In another embodiment, R^(A), R^(B), R^(C), R^(D), and R^(E) are each hydrogen. R^(A), R^(B), R^(D), and R^(E) are each hydrogen and R^(C) is a halogen, such as fluorine, chlorine, iodine, or bromine.

In another embodiment, R³ or R^(5a) is a moiety of Formula IIIa.

In another embodiment, R⁴, R⁵, R⁶, and R⁷ are each hydrogen. In another further embodiment, R^(4a), R^(5a), R^(6a), and R^(7a) are each hydrogen.

In another, R^(3a) is hydroxyl, cyano, acyl, or hydroxyl.

In another further embodiment, R¹¹ and A taken together are a natural or unnatural amino acid residue or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or ester thereof. Examples of amino acid residues include esters and salts of phenylalanine and leucine.

In another embodiment, m is 0, 1, or 3.

Examples of compounds of Formula III include, but are not limited to:

pharmaceutically acceptable salts, esters, and prodrugs thereof.

In another embodiment, the invention pertains to compounds of Formula IV:

wherein:

A is nitrogen or oxygen;

-   -   R¹¹ is hydrogen, salt-forming cation, ester forming group,         —(CH₂)_(x)-Q, or when A is nitrogen, A and R¹¹ taken together         may be the residue of a natural or unnatural amino acid or a         salt or ester thereof;     -   Q is hydrogen, thiazolyl, triazolyl, imidazolyl, benzothiazolyl,         or benzoimidazolyl;     -   x is 0, 1, 2, 3, or 4;     -   n is 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, or 10;     -   R⁴, R^(4a), R⁵, R^(5a), R⁶, R^(6a), R⁷, and R^(7a) are each         independently hydrogen, alkyl, mercaptoalkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl,         cycloalkyl, aryl, alkylcarbonyl, arylcarbonyl, alkoxycarbonyl,         cyano, halogen, amino, tetrazolyl, R⁴ and R⁵ taken together,         with the ring atoms they are attached to, form a double bond, or         R⁶ and R⁷ taken together, with the ring atoms they are attached         to, form a double bond;     -   m is 0, 1, 2, 3, or 4;     -   R⁸, R⁹,R¹⁰, R¹¹, and R¹² are independently selected from a group         of hydrogen, halogen, hydroxyl, alkyl, alkoxyl, halogenated         alkyl, mercaptoalkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, cycloalkyl, aryl, cyano,         thiazolyl, triazolyl, imidazolyl, tetrazolyl, benzothiazolyl,         and benzoimidazolyl, and pharmaceutically acceptable salts and         esters thereof.

In another embodiment, R¹¹ is a salt-forming cation. Examples of salt forming cations include pharmaceutically acceptable salts described herein as well as lithium, sodium, potassium, magnesium, calcium, barium, zinc, iron, and ammonium. In another embodiment, R¹¹ is an ester-forming group. An ester-forming group includes groups which when bound form an ester. Examples of such groups include substituted or unsubstituted alkyl, aryl, alkenyl, alkynyl, or cycloalkyl. In another embodiment, A is oxygen.

In another embodiment, m is 0 or 1. In another further embodiment, n is 2, 3, or 4. In another further embodiment, R⁴, R⁵, R⁶ and R⁷ are each hydrogen. R^(4a), R^(5a), R^(6a), and R^(7a) also may be hydrogen. Examples of R⁸, R⁹, R¹⁰, R¹¹, and R¹² include hydrogen. In another embodiment R⁸, R⁹, R¹¹, R¹² are each hydrogen, and R¹⁰ is a halogen, (e.g., fluorine, chlorine, bromine, or iodine), nitro, or alkyl (e.g., methyl, ethyl, butyl). In another embodiment, A-R¹¹ may be the residue of an amino acid, e.g., a phenylalanine residue. In another embodiment, R⁹, R¹⁰, R¹¹ and R¹² are each hydrogen, and R⁸ is not hydrogen, e.g., halogen, e.g., fluorine, bromine, chlorine, or iodine.

In another embodiment, the compound is:

-   -   and pharmaceutically acceptable salts, esters, and prodrugs         thereof.

In another embodiment, the invention pertains to compounds of Formula V:

wherein:

-   -   A is nitrogen or oxygen;     -   R¹¹ is hydrogen, salt-forming cation, ester forming group,         —(CH₂)_(x)-Q, or when A is nitrogen, A and R¹¹ taken together         may be the residue of a natural or unnatural amino acid or a         salt or ester thereof;     -   Q is hydrogen, thiazolyl, triazolyl, imidazolyl, benzothiazolyl,         or benzoimidazolyl;     -   x is 0, 1, 2, 3, or 4;     -   n is 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, or 10;     -   aa is a natural or unnatural amino acid residue;     -   m is 0, 1, 2, or 3;     -   R¹⁴ is hydrogen or protecting group;     -   R¹⁵ is hydrogen, alkyl or aryl, and pharmaceutically acceptable         salts, esters and prodrugs thereof.

In another embodiment, R¹¹ is a salt-forming cation. Examples of salt forming cations include pharmaceutically acceptable salts described herein as well as lithium, sodium, potassium, magnesium, calcium, barium, zinc, iron, and ammonium. In another embodiment, R¹¹ is an ester-forming group. An ester-forming group includes groups which when bound form an ester. Examples of such groups include substituted or unsubstituted alkyl, aryl, alkenyl, alkynyl, or cycloalkyl. In another embodiment, A is oxygen.

In an embodiment, n is 2, 3 or 4. In certain embodiments, m is 0. In certain embodiments, A-R¹¹ is a residue of a natural amino acid, or a salt or ester thereof. Examples of amino acid residues, include, but are not limited to, leucine or phenylalanine residues, and pharmaceutically acceptable salts and esters thereof. Examples of possible esters include methyl, ethyl, and t-butyl.

In another embodiment, m is 1. Examples of aa include natural and unnatural amino acid residues such as phenylalanine, glycine, and leucine.

In another embodiment, (aa)_(m) is a residue of phe-phe, or an ester thereof.

In certain embodiments, R¹⁵ is hydrogen or substituted alkyl, e.g., arylalkyl. The term “unnatural amino acid” refers to any derivative of a natural amino acid including D forms, and α- and β-amino acid derivatives. It is noted that certain amino acids, e.g., hydroxyproline, that are classified as a non-natural amino acid herein, may be found in nature within a certain organism or a particular protein. Amino acids with many different protecting groups appropriate for irmnediate use in the solid phase synthesis of peptides are commercially available. In addition to the twenty most common naturally occurring amino acids, the following examples of non-natural amino acids and amino acid derivatives may be used according to the invention (common abbreviations in parentheses): β-alanine (β-ALA), γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA), 2-aminobutyric acid (2-Abu), α,β-dehydro-2-aminobutyric acid (8-AU), 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid (ACPC), aminoisobutyric acid (Aib), 2-amino-thiazoline-4-carboxylic acid, 5-aminovaleric acid (5-Ava), 6-aminohexanoic acid (6-Ahx), 8-aminooctanoic acid (8-Aoc), 11-aminoundecanoic acid (11-Aun), 12-aminododecanoic acid (12-Ado), 2-aminobenzoic acid (2-Abz), 3-aminobenzoic acid (3-Abz), 4-aminobenzoic acid (4-Abz), 4-amino-3-hydroxy-6-methylheptanoic acid (Statine, Sta), aminooxyacetic acid (Aoa), 2-aminotetraline-2-carboxylic acid (ATC), 4-amino-5-cyclohexyl-3-hydroxypentanoic acid (ACHPA), para-aminophenylalanine (4-NH₂-Phe), biphenylalanine (Bip), para-bromophenylalanine (4-Br-Phe), ortho-chlorophenylalanine] (2-Cl-Phe), meta-chlorophenylalanine (3-Cl-Phe), para-chlorophenylalanine (4-Cl-Phe), meta-chlorotyrosine (3-Cl-Tyr), para-benzoylphenylalanine (Bpa), tert-butylglycine (TLG), cyclohexylalanine (Cha), cyclohexylglycine (Chg), 2,3-diaminopropionic acid (Dpr), 2,4-diaminobutyric acid (Dbu), 3,4-dichlorophenylalanine (3,4-Cl₂-Phe), 3,4-diflurorphenylalanine (3,4-F₂-Phe), 3,5-diiodotyrosine (3,5-I₂-Tyr), ortho-fluorophenylalanine (2-F-Phe), meta-fluorophenylalanine (3-F-Phe), para-fluorophenylalanine (4-F-Phe), meta-fluorotyrosine (3-F-Tyr), homoserine (Hse), homophenylalanine (Hfe), homotyrosine (Htyr), 5-hydroxytryptophan (5-OH-Trp), hydroxyproline (Hyp), para-iodophenylalanine (4-1-Phe), 3-iodotyrosine (3-1-Tyr), indoline-2-carboxylic acid (Idc), isonipecotic acid (Inp), meta-methyltyrosine (3-Me-Tyr), 1-naphthylalanine (1-Nal), 2-naphthylalanine (2-Nal), para-nitrophenylalanine (4-NO₂-Phe), 3-nitrotyrosine (3-NO₂-Tyr), norleucine (Nle), norvaline (Nva), ornithine (Om), ortho-phosphotyrosine (H₂PO₃-Tyr), octahydroindole-2-carboxylic acid (Oic), penicillamine (Pen), pentafluorophenylalanine (F₅-Phe), phenylglycine (Phg), pipecolic acid (Pip), propargylglycine (Pra), pyroglutamic acid (PGLU), sarcosine (Sar), tetrahydroisoquinoline-3-carboxylic acid (Tic), thienylalanine, and thiazolidine-4-carboxylic acid (thioproline, Th). Additionally, N-alkylated amino acids may be used, as well as amino acids having amine-containing side chains (such as Lys and Orn) in which the amine has been acylated or or alkylated.

Examples of compounds of the invention include, but are not limited to:

and pharmaceutically acceptable salts, esters, and prodrugs thereof.

In another embodiment, the invention pertains, at least in part, to compounds of Formula VI:

wherein:

-   -   n is 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, or 10;     -   A is oxygen or nitrogen;     -   R¹¹ is hydrogen, salt-forming cation, ester forming group,         —(CH₂)_(x)-Q, or when A is nitrogen, A and R¹¹ taken together         may be the residue of a natural or unnatural amino acid or a         salt or ester thereof;     -   Q is hydrogen, thiazolyl, triazolyl, imidazolyl, benzothiazolyl,         or benzoimidazolyl;     -   x is 0, 1, 2, 3, or 4;     -   R¹⁹ is hydrogen, alkyl or aryl;     -   Y¹ is oxygen, sulfur, or nitrogen;     -   Y² is carbon, nitrogen, or oxygen;     -   R²⁰ is hydrogen, alkyl, amino, mercaptoalkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl,         cycloalkyl, aryl, arylalkyl, thiazolyl, triazolyl, tetrazolyl,         imidazolyl, benzothiazolyl, or benzoimidazolyl;     -   R²¹ is hydrogen, alkyl, mercaptoalkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl,         cycloalkyl, aryl, arylalkyl, thiazolyl, triazolyl, tetrazolyl,         imidazolyl, benzothiazolyl, benzoimidazolyl, or absent if Y² is         oxygen;     -   R²² is hydrogen, alkyl, mercaptoalkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl,         cycloalkyl, aryl, arylalkyl, thiazolyl, triazolyl, tetrazolyl,         imidazolyl, benzothiazolyl, benzoimidazolyl; or R²² is hydrogen,         hydroxyl, alkoxy or aryloxy if Y¹ is nitrogen; or R²² is absent         if Y¹ is oxygen or sulfur; or R²² and R²¹ may be linked to form         a cyclic moiety if Y¹ is nitrogen;     -   R²³ is hydrogen, alkyl, amino, mercaptoalkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl,         cycloalkyl, aryl, arylalkyl, thiazolyl, triazolyl, tetrazolyl,         imidazolyl, benzothiazolyl, or benzoimidazolyl, or absent if Y²         is nitrogen or oxygen;     -   or pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof.

In another embodiment, R¹¹ is a salt-forming cation. Examples of salt forming cations include pharmaceutically acceptable salts described herein as well as lithium, sodium, potassium, magnesium, calcium, barium, zinc, iron, and ammonium. In a further embodiment, the salt is a sodium salt. In a further, embodiment, A is oxygen.

In another embodiment, Y¹ is oxygen or sulfur, and R²² is absent.

In another embodiment, Y² is oxygen and R²¹ is absent. Examples of R²⁰ include benzyl, aryl (e.g., phenyl), alkyl, cycloalkyl (e.g., adamantyl), etc. In other embodiment, Y² is nitrogen and R²¹ is hydrogen. In other embodiment, R²¹ is benzyl. In another further embodiment, R²⁰ and R²¹ are linked to form a pyridyl ring. In another embodiment, Y¹ is sulfur.

Examples of compounds of the invention, include

and pharmaceutically acceptable salts, esters, and prodrugs thereof.

In another embodiment, the invention pertains to compounds of Formula VII:

wherein:

-   -   n is 2, 3, or 4;     -   A is oxygen or nitrogen;     -   R¹¹ is hydrogen, salt-forming cation, ester forming group,         —(CH₂)_(x)-Q, or when A is nitrogen, A and R¹¹ taken together         may be the residue of a natural or unnatural amino acid or a         salt or ester thereof;     -   Q is hydrogen, thiazolyl, triazolyl, imidazolyl, benzothiazolyl,         or benzoimidazolyl;     -   x is 0, 1, 2, 3, or 4;     -   G is a direct bond or oxygen, nitrogen, or sulfur;

-   z is 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5;     -   m is 0 or 1;     -   R²⁴ is selected from a group consisting of hydrogen, alkyl,         mercaptoalkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, aroyl, alkylcarbonyl,         aminoalkylcarbonyl, cycloalkyl, aryl, arylalkyl, thiazolyl,         triazolyl, imidazolyl, benzothiazolyl, and benzoimidazolyl;     -   each R²⁵ is independently selected from hydrogen, halogen,         cyano, hydroxyl, alkoxy, thiol, amino, nitro, alkyl, aryl,         carbocyclic, or heterocyclic, and pharmaceutically acceptable         salts, esters, and prodrugs thereof.

In one embodiment, R¹¹ is hydrogen. In another, A is oxygen. For example, n may be 3 and m may be 1. In other embodiments, R²⁴ is hydrogen or benzyl.

In certain embodiments, z is 0, 2, or 3. In others, R²⁵ is hydroxyl or alkoxy, e.g., methoxy, ethoxy, etc. In certain embodiments, two or more R²⁵ substituents can be linked to form a fused ring (e.g., to form a methylendioxyphenyl moiety).

Examples of compounds of the invention include:

and pharmaceutically acceptable salts, esters, and prodrugs thereof.

Other compounds of the invention include

and pharmaceutically acceptable salts, esters, and prodrugs thereof.

The invention pertains to both salt forms and acid/base forms of the compounds of the invention. For example, the invention pertains not only to the particular salt forms of compounds shown herein as salts, but also the invention includes other pharmaceutically acceptable salts, and the acid and/or base form of the compound. The invention also pertains to salt forms of compounds shown herein.

Compounds of the invention are also shown in Table 2 below. TABLE 2 Structure/ ID Name of Compound B

C

D

E

F

G

H

I

J

K

L

M

N

P

Q

R

S

X

Y

Z

AA

AB

AC

AD

AE

AF

AG

AH

AI

AJ

AK

AL

AM

AU

AV

AW

AX

AY

AZ

BA

BB

BC

BW

BX

BY

BZ

CC

CD

CE

CG

CH

CI

CJ

CK

CL

CM

CN

CO

CV

CY

DC

DD

DE

DG

DH

DI

DJ

DK

DL

DM

DN

DO

DP

DQ

DR

DS

DT

DU

DV

DW

DX

DY

DZ

EA

EB

EC

ED

EE

EF

EG

EH

EI

EJ

EK

EL

EN

EO

EP

EQ

ER

ES

ET

EV

EW

EY

EZ

FA

FH

FL

FM

FN

FO

FP

FQ

FR

FS

FT

FU

FV

FW

FX

FY

FZ

GA

GB

GC

GD

GE

GF

GH

GI

GJ

GK

GL

GM

GN

GO

GP

GQ

GR

GS

GT

GU

GZ

HA

HB

HC

HD

HE

HF

HG

HI

HJ

HK

HL

HM

HN

HO

HP

HQ

HR

HS

HT

HU

HV

HW

HX

HY

HZ

IA

IB

IC

ID

IE

IF

IG

IH

II

IJ

IK

IL

IM

IN

IO

IP

IR

IS

IT

IU

IV

IW

IX

IY

IZ

JA

JB

JC

JD

JE

JF

JG

JH

JI

JJ

JK

JL

JM

JN

JO

JP

JQ

JR

JS

JT

JU

JV

JW

JX

JY

JZ

KA

KB

KH

KI

KJ

KK

KL

KM

KN

KP

KQ

KR

KS

KT

KV

KW

KX

KY

LA

LC

LD

LE

LF

LG

LH

LI

LJ

LK

LL

LM

LN

LO

LP

LQ

It should be noted that in the above table and throughout the application when an atom is shown without hydrogens, but hydrogens are required or chemically necessary to form a stable compound, hydrogens should be inferred to be part of the compound.

In one embodiment, the invention does not pertain to the compounds described in WO 00/64420 and WO 96/28187. In this embodiment, the invention does not pertain to methods of using the compounds described in WO 00/64420 and WO 96/28187 for the treatment of diseases or disorders described therein. In a further embodiment, the invention pertains to methods of using the compounds described in WO 00/64420 and WO 96/28187 for methods described in this application, which are not described in WO 00/64420 and WO 96/28187. Both of WO 00/64420 and WO 96/28187 are incorporated by reference herein in their entirety.

In another embodiment, the invention pertains to methods of the invention which use and pharmaceutical compositions comprising, the compounds of Table 2A. In another embodiment, the compounds of the invention do not include the compounds of Table 2A. TABLE 2A

BzNHCH₂CH₂CH₂SO₃Na

AcNHCH₂CH₂CH₂SO₃Na

CH₃(CH₂)₈NH(CH₂)₃SO₃H

CH₃(CH₂)₉NH(CH₂)₃SO₃H

CH₃(CH₂)₁₁NH(CH₂)₃SO₃H CH₃(CH₂)₁₀NH(CH₂)₃SO₃H CH₃(CH₂)₁₂NH(CH₂)₃SO₃H

HOCH₂CH₂CH₂NHCH₂CH₂CH₂SO₃] CH₃(CH₂)₁₃NH(CH₂)₃SO₃H CH₃(CH₂)₁₅NH(CH₂)₃SO₃H

CH₃(CH₂)₁₇NHCH₂CH₂CH₂SO₃H

CH₃(CH₂)₁₃N⁺(CH₃)₂[(CH₂)₃SO₃ ⁻]

NaO₃SOCH₂)₃CH₂OSO₃Na

HOCH₂CH₂CH₂CH₂SO₃Na (NaO₃SCH₂CH₂CH₂CH₂)₂O

HC(CH₂OSO₃Na)₃ CH₃C(CH₂OSO₃Na)₃ NH₂CH₂CH₂CH₂SO₃Na

NH₂C(CH₂OSO₃Na)₃ NH₂CH₂CH₂OSO₃H NaO₃SNHCH₂CH₂OSO₃Na

H₂NCH₂CH₂CH₂OSO₃Na

NaO₃SNHCH₂CH₂CH₂OSO₃Na HN(CH₂CH₂OSO₃Na)₂

NaO₃SN(CH₂CH₂OSO₃NA)₂ H₂NCH₂CH₂SO₃H NaO₃SOCH₂CH₂CH₂SO₃Na

CH₃CH₂CH₂CH₂SO₃Na CH₃(CH₂)₈CH₂SO₃Na

CH₃CH₂CH₂SO₃Na CH₃CH₂SO₃Na CH₃CH₂CH₂CH₂CH₂SO₃Na

It should be understood that the use of any of the compounds described herein or in the applications identified in “The Related Applications” Section is within the scope of the present invention and is intended to be encompassed by the present invention and each of the applications are expressly incorporated herein at least for these purposes, and are furthermore expressly incorporated for all other purposes.

Subjects and Patient Populations

The term “subject” includes living organisms in which amyloidosis can occur, or which are susceptible to amyloid diseases, e.g., Alzheimer's disease, Down's syndrome, CAA, dialysis-related (β₂M) amyloidosis, secondary (AA) amyloidosis, primary (AL) amyloidosis, hereditary amyloidosis, diabetes, etc. Examples of subjects include humans, chickens, ducks, peking ducks, geese, monkeys, deer, cows, rabbits, sheep, goats, dogs, cats, mice, rats, and transgenic species thereof. Administration of the compositions of the present invention to a subject to be treated can be carried out using known procedures, at dosages and for periods of time effective to modulate amyloid aggregation or amyloid-induced toxicity in the subject as further described herein. An effective amount of the therapeutic compound necessary to achieve a therapeutic effect may vary according to factors such as the amount of amyloid already deposited at the clinical site in the subject, the age, sex, and weight of the subject, and the ability of the therapeutic compound to modulate amyloid aggregation in the subject. Dosage regimens can be adjusted to provide the optimum therapeutic response. For example, several divided doses may be administered daily or the dose may be proportionally reduced as indicated by the exigencies of the therapeutic situation.

In certain embodiments of the invention, the subject is in need of treatment by the methods of the invention, and is selected for treatment based on this need. A subject in need of treatment is art-recognized, and includes subjects that have been identified as having a disease or disorder related to amyloid-deposition or amyloidosis, has a symptom of such a disease or disorder, or is at risk of such a disease or disorder, and would be expected, based on diagnosis, e.g., medical diagnosis, to benefit from treatment (e.g., curing, healing, preventing, alleviating, relieving, altering, remedying, ameliorating, improving, or affecting the disease or disorder, the symptom of the disease or disorder, or the risk of the disease or disorder).

In an exemplary aspect of the invention, the subject is a human. For example, the subject may be a human over 30 years old, human over 40 years old, a human over 50 years old, a human over 60 years old, a human over 70 years old, a human over 80 years old, a human over 85 years old, a human over 90 years old, or a human over 95 years old. The subject may be a female human, including a postmenopausal female human, who may be on hormone (estrogen) replacement therapy. The subject may also be a male human. In another embodiment, the subject is under 40 years old.

A subject may be a human at risk for Alzheimer's disease, e.g., being over the age of 40 or having a predisposition for Alzheimer's disease. Alzheimer's disease predisposing factors identified or proposed in the scientific literature include, among others, a genotype predisposing a subject to Alzheimer's disease; environmental factors predisposing a subject to Alzheimer's disease; past history of infection by viral and bacterial agents predisposing a subject to Alzheimer's disease; and vascular factors predisposing a subject to Alzheimer's disease. A subject may also have one or more risk factors for cardiovascular disease (e.g., atherosclerosis of the coronary arteries, angina pectoris, and myocardial infarction) or cerebrovascular disease (e.g., atherosclerosis of the intracranial or extracranial arteries, stroke, syncope, and transient ischemic attacks), such as hypercholesterolemia, hypertension, diabetes, cigarette smoking, familial or previous history of coronary artery disease, cerebrovascular disease, and cardiovascular disease. Hypercholesterolemia typically is defined as a serum total cholesterol concentration of greater than about 5.2 mmol/L (about 200 mg/dL).

Several genotypes are believed to predispose a subject to Alzheimer's disease. These include the genotypes such as presenilin-1, presenilin-2, and amyloid precursor protein (APP) missense mutations associated with familial Alzheimer's disease, and c&2-macroglobulin and LRP-1 genotypes, which are thought to increase the risk of acquiring sporadic (late-onset) Alzheimer's disease. E. van Uden, et al., J. Neurosci. 22(21), 9298-304 (2002); J. J. Goto, et al., J. Mol. Neurosci. 19(1-2), 37-41 (2002). Another genetic risk factor for the development of Alzheimer's disease are variants of ApoE, the gene that encodes apolipoprotein E (particularly the apoE4 genotype), a constituent of the low-density lipoprotein particle. W J Stritttnatter, et al., Annu. Rev. Neurosci. 19, 53-77 (1996). The molecular mechanisms by which the various ApoE alleles alter the likelihood of developing Alzheimer's disease are unknown, however the role of ApoE in cholesterol metabolism is consistent with the growing body of evidence linking cholesterol metabolism to Alzheimer's disease. For example, chronic use of cholesterol-lowering drugs such as statins has recently been associated with a lower incidence of Alzheimer's disease, and cholesterol-lowering drugs have been shown to reduce pathology in APP transgenic mice. These and other studies suggest that cholesterol may affect APP processing. ApoE4 has been suggested to alter Aβ trafficking (in and out of the brain), and favor retention of Aβ in the brain. ApoE4 has also been suggested to favor APP processing toward Aβ formation. Environmental factors have been proposed as predisposing a subject to Alzheimer's disease, including exposure to aluminum, although the epidemiological evidence is ambiguous. In addition, prior infection by certain viral or bacterial agents may predispose a subject to Alzheimer's disease, including the herpes simplex virus and chlamydia pneumoniae. Finally, other predisposing factors for Alzheimer's disease can include risk factors for cardiovascular or cerebrovascular disease, including cigarette smoking, hypertension and diabetes. “At risk for Alzheimer's disease” also encompasses any other predisposing factors not listed above or as yet identified and includes an increased risk for Alzheimer's disease caused by head injury, medications, diet, or lifestyle.

The methods of the present invention can be used for one or more of the following: to prevent Alzheimer's disease, to treat Alzheimer's disease, or ameliorate symptoms of Alzheimer's disease, or to regulate production of or levels of amyloid β (Aβ) peptides. In an embodiment, the human carries one or more mutations in the genes that encode β-amyloid precursor protein, presenilin-1 or presenilin-2. In another embodiment, the human carries the Apolipoprotein ε4 gene. In another embodiment, the human has a family history of Alzheimer's Disease or a dementia illness. In another embodiment, the human has trisomy 21 (Down's Syndrome). In another embodiment, the subject has a normal or low serum total blood cholesterol level. In another embodiment, the serum total blood cholesterol level is less than about 200 mg/dL, or less than about 180, and it can range from about 150 to about 200 mg/dL. In another embodiment, the total LDL cholesterol level is less than about 100 mg/dL, or less than about 90 mg/dL and can range from about 30 to about 100 mg/dL. Methods of measuring serum total blood cholesterol and total LDL cholesterol are well known to those skilled in the art and for example include those disclosed in WO 99/38498 at p. 1, incorporated by reference herein. Methods of determining levels of other sterols in serum are disclosed in H. Gylling, et al., “Serum Sterols During Stanol Ester Feeding in a Mildly Hypercholesterolemic Population”, J. Lipid Res. 40: 593-600 (1999).

In another embodiment, the subject has an elevated serum total blood cholesterol level. In another embodiment, the serum total cholesterol level is at least about 200 mg/dL, or at least about 220 mg/dL and can range from about 200 to about 1000 mg/dL. In another embodiment, the subject has an elevated total LDL cholesterol level. In another embodiment, the total LDL cholesterol level is greater than about 100 mg/dL, or even greater than about 110 mg/dL and can range from about 100 to about 1000 mg/dL.

In another embodiment, the human is at least about 40 years of age. In another embodiment, the human is at least about 60 years of age. In another embodiment, the human is at least about 70 years of age. In another embodiment, the human is at least about 80 years of age. In another embodiment, the human is at least about 85 years of age. In one embodiment, the human is between about 60 and about 100 years of age.

In still a further embodiment, the subject is shown to be at risk by a diagnostic brain imaging technique, for example, one that measures brain activity, plaque deposition, or brain atrophy.

In still a further embodiment, the subject is shown to be at risk by a cognitive test such as Clinical Dementia Rating (“CDR”), Alzheimer's Disease Assessment Scale-Cognition (“ADAS-Cog”), or Mini-Mental State Examination (“MMSE”). The subject may exhibit a below average score on a cognitive test, as compared to a historical control of similar age and educational background. The subject may also exhibit a reduction in score as compared to previous scores of the subject on the same or similar cognition tests.

In determining the CDR, a subject is typically assessed and rated in each of six cognitive and behavioural categories: memory, orientation, judgement and problem solving, community affairs, home and hobbies, and personal care. The assessment may include historical information provided by the subject, or preferably, a corroborator who knows the subject well. The subject is assessed and rated in each of these areas and the overall rating, (0, 0.5, 1.0, 2.0 or 3.0) determined. A rating of 0 is considered normal. A rating of 1.0 is considered to correspond to mild dementia. A subject with a CDR of 0.5 is characterized by mild consistent forgetfulness, partial recollection of events and “benign” forgetfulness. In one embodiment the subject is assessed with a rating on the CDR of above 0, of above about 0.5, of above about 1.0, of above about 1.5, of above about 2.0, of above about 2.5, or at about 3.0.

Another test is the Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE), as described by Folstein “Mini-mental state. A practical method for grading the cognitive state of patients for the clinician.” J. Psychiatr. Res. 12:189-198, 1975. The MMSE evaluates the presence of global intellectual deterioration. See also Folstein “Differential diagnosis of dementia. The clinical process.” Psychiatr Clin North Am. 20:45-57, 1997. The MMSE is a means to evaluate the onset of dementia and the presence of global intellectual deterioration, as seen in Alzheimer's disease and multi-infart dementia. The MMSE is scored from 1 to 30. The MMSE does not evaluate basic cognitive potential, as, for example, the so-called IQ test. Instead, it tests intellectual skills. A person of “normal” intellectual capabilities will score a “30” on the MMSE objective test (however, a person with a MMSE score of 30 could also score well below “normal” on an IQ test). See, e.g., Kaufer, J. Neuropsychiatry Clin. Neurosci. 10:55-63, 1998; Becke, Alzheimer Dis Assoc Disord. 12:54-57, 1998; Ellis, Arch. Neurol. 55:360-365, 1998; Magni, Int. Psychogeriatr. 8:127-134, 1996; Monsch, Acta Neurol. Scand. 92:145-150, 1995. In one embodiment, the subject scores below 30 at least once on the MMSE. In another embodiment, the subject scores below about 28, below about 26, below about 24, below about 22, below about 20, below about 18, below about 16, below about 14, below about 12, below about 10, below about 8, below about 6, below about 4, below about 2, or below about 1.

Another means to evaluate cognition, particularly Alzheimer's disease, is the Alzheimer's Disease Assessment Scale (ADAS-Cog), or a variation termed the Standardized Alzheimer's Disease Assessment Scale (SADAS). It is commonly used as an efficacy measure in clinical drug trials of Alzheimer's disease and related disorders characterized by cognitive decline. SADAS and ADAS-Cog were not designed to diagnose Alzheimer's disease; they are useful in characterizing symptoms of dementia and are a relatively sensitive indicator of dementia progression. (See, e.g., Doraiswamy, Neurology 48:1511-1517, 1997; and Standish, J. Am. Geriatr. Soc. 44:712-716, 1996.) Annual deterioration in untreated Alzheimer's disease patients is approximately 8 points per year (See, eg., Raskind, M Prim. Care Companion J Clin Psychiatry 2000 August; 2(4):134-138).

The ADAS-cog is designed to measure, with the use of questionnaires, the progression and the severity of cognitive decline as seen in AD on a 70-point scale. The ADAS-cog scale quantifies the number of wrong answers. Consequently, a high score on the scale indicates a more severe case of cognitive decline. In one embodiment, a subject exhibits a score of greater than 0, greater than about 5, greater than about 10, greater than about 15, greater than about 20, greater than about 25, greater than about 30, greater than about 35, greater than about 40, greater than about 45, greater than about 50, greater than about 55, greater than about 60, greater than about 65, greater than about 68, or about 70.

In another embodiment, the subject exhibits no symptoms of Alzheimer's Disease. In another embodiment, the subject is a human who is at least 40 years of age and exhibits no symptoms of Alzheimer's Disease. In another embodiment, the subject is a human who is at least 40 years of age and exhibits one or more symptoms of Alzheimer's Disease.

In another embodiment, the subject has Mild Cognitive Impairment. In a further embodiment, the subject has a CDR rating of about 0.5. In another embodiment, the subject has early Alzheimer's disease. In another embodiment, the subject has cerebral amyloid angiopathy.

By using the methods of the present invention, the levels of amyloid β peptides in a subject's plasma or cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) can be reduced from levels prior to treatment from about 10 to about 100 percent, or even about 50 to about 100 percent.

In an alternative embodiment, the subject can have an elevated level of amyloid Aβ₄₀ and Aβ₄₂ peptide in the blood and CSF prior to treatment, according to the present methods, of greater than about 10 pg/mL, or greater than about 20 pg/mL, or greater than about 35 pg/mL, or even greater than about 40 pg/mL. In another embodiment, the elevated level of amyloid Aβ₄₂ peptide can range from about 30 pg/mL to about 200 pg/mL, or even to about 500 pg/mL. One skilled in the art would understand that as Alzheimer's disease progresses, the measurable levels of amyloid, peptide in the CSF may decrease from elevated levels present before onset of the disease. This effect is attributed to increased deposition, i.e., trapping of Aβ peptide in the brain instead of normal clearance from the brain into the CSF.

In an alternative embodiment, the subject can have an elevated level of amyloid Aβ₄₀ peptide in the blood and CSF prior to treatment, according to the present methods, of greater than about 5 pg Aβ₄₂/mL or greater than about 50 pg Aβ40/mL, or greater than about 400 pg/mL. In another embodiment, the elevated level of amyloid Aβ40 peptide can range from about 200 pg/mL to about 800 pg/mL, to even about 1000 pg/mL.

In another embodiment, the subject can have an elevated level of amyloid A0₄₂ peptide in the CSF prior to treatment, according to the present methods, of greater than about pg/mL, or greater than about 10 pg/mL, or greater than about 200 pg/mL, or greater than about 500 pg/mL. In another embodiment, the level of amyloid, peptide can range from about 10 pg/mL to about 1,000 pg/mL, or even about 100 pg/mL to about 1,000 pg/mL.

In another embodiment, the subject can have an elevated level of amyloid Aβ₄₀ peptide in the CSF prior to treatment according to the present methods of greater than about pg/mL, or greater than about 50 pg/mL, or even greater than about 100 pg/mL. In another embodiment, the level of amyloid β peptide can range from about 10 pg/mL to about 1,000 pg/mL.

The amount of amyloid β peptide in the brain, CSF, blood, or plasma of a subject can be evaluated by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (“ELISA”) or quantitative immunoblotting test methods or by quantitative SELDI-TOF which are well known to those skilled in the art, such as is disclosed by Zhang, et al., J. Biol. Chem. 274, 8966-72 (1999) and Zhang, et al., Biochemistry 40, 5049-55 (2001). See also, A. K. Vehrnas, et al., DNA Cell Biol. 20(11), 713-21 (2001), P. Lewczuk, et al., Rapid Commun. Mass Spectrom. 17(12), 1291-96 (2003); B. M. Austen, et al., J. Peptide Sci. 6, 459-69 (2000); and H. Davies, et al., BioTechniques 27, 1258-62 (1999). These tests are performed on samples of the brain or blood which have been prepared in a manner well known to one skilled in the art. Another example of a useful method for measuring levels of amyloid β peptides is by Europium immunoassay (EIA). See, e.g., WO 99/38498 at p.11.

The methods of the invention may be applied as a therapy for a subject having Alzheimer's disease or a dementia, or the methods of the invention may be applied as a prophylaxis against Alzheimer's disease or dementia for subject with such a predisposition, as in a subject, e.g., with a genomic mutation in the APP gene, the ApoE gene, or a presenilin gene. The subject may have (or may be predisposed to developing or may be suspected of having) vascular dementia, or senile dementia, Mild Cognitive Impairment, or early Alzheimer's disease. In addition to Alzheimer's disease, the subject may have another amyloid-related disease such as cerebral amyloid angiopathy, or the subject may have amyloid deposits, especially amyloid-β amyloid deposits in the brain.

Treatment of Amyloid-Related Diseases

The present invention pertains to methods of using the compounds and pharmaceutical compositions thereof in the treatment and prevention of amyloid-related diseases. The pharmaceutical compositions of the invention may be administered therapeutically or prophylactically to treat diseases associated with amyloid (e.g., AL amyloid protein (λ or κ-chain related, e.g., amyloid λ, amyloid κ, amyloid κIV, amyloid λVI, amyloid γ, amyloid γ1), Aβ, IAPP, β₂M, AA, or AH amyloid protein) fibril formation, aggregation or deposition.

The pharmaceutical compositions of the invention may act to ameliorate the course of an amyloid-related disease using any of the following mechanisms (this list is meant to be illustrative and not limiting): slowing the rate of amyloid fibril formation or deposition; lessening the degree of amyloid deposition; inhibiting, reducing, or preventing amyloid fibril formation; inhibiting neurodegeneration or cellular toxicity induced by amyloid; inhibiting amyloid induced inflammation; enhancing the clearance of amyloid from the brain; enhancing degradation of AP in the brain; or favoring clearance of amyloid protein prior to its organization in fibrils.

“Modulation” of amyloid deposition includes both inhibition, as defined above, and enhancement of amyloid deposition or fibril formation. The term “modulating” is intended, therefore, to encompass prevention or stopping of amyloid formation or accumulation, inhibition or slowing down of further amyloid formation or accumulation in a subject with ongoing amyloidosis, e.g., already having amyloid deposition, and reducing or reversing of amyloid formation or accumulation in a subject with ongoing amyloidosis; and enhancing amyloid deposition, e.g., increasing the rate or amount of amyloid deposition in vivo or in vitro. Amyloid-enhancing compounds may be useful in animal models of amyloidosis, for example, to make possible the development of amyloid-deposits in animals in a shorter period of time-or to increase amyloid deposits over a selected period of time. Amyloid-enhancing compounds may be useful in screening assays for compounds which inhibit amyloidosis in vivo, for example, in animal models, cellular assays and in vitro assays for amyloidosis. Such compounds may be used, for example, to provide faster or more sensitive assays for compounds. Modulation of amyloid deposition is determined relative to an untreated subject or relative to the treated subject prior to treatment.

“Inhibition” of amyloid deposition includes preventing or stopping of amyloid formation, e.g., fibrillogenesis, clearance of amyloid, e.g., soluble Aβ from brain, inhibiting or slowing down of further amyloid deposition in a subject with amyloidosis, e.g., already having amyloid deposits, and reducing or reversing amyloid fibrillogenesis or deposits in a subject with ongoing amyloidosis. Inhibition of amyloid deposition is determined relative to an untreated subject, or relative to the treated subject prior to treatment, or, e.g., determined by clinically measurable improvement, e.g., or in the case of a subject with brain amyloidosis, e.g., an Alzheimer's or cerebral amyloid angiopathy subject, stabilization of cognitive function or prevention of a further decrease in cognitive function (i.e., preventing, slowing, or stopping disease progression), or improvement of parameters such as the concentration of AP or tau in the CSF.

As used herein, “treatment” of a subject includes the application or administration of a composition of the invention to a subject, or application or administration of a composition of the invention to a cell or tissue from a subject, who has an amyloid-related disease or condition, has a symptom of such a disease or condition, or is at risk of (or susceptible to) such a disease or condition, with the purpose of curing, healing, alleviating, relieving, altering, remedying, ameliorating, improving, or affecting the disease or condition, the symptom of the disease or condition, or the risk of (or susceptibility to) the disease or condition. The term “treating” refers to any indicia of success in the treatment or amelioration of an injury, pathology or condition, including any objective or subjective parameter such as abatement; remission; diminishing of symptoms or making the injury, pathology or condition more tolerable to the subject; slowing in the rate of degeneration or decline; making the final point of degeneration less debilitating; improving a subject's physical or mental well-being; or, in some situations, preventing the onset of dementia. The treatment or amelioration of symptoms can be based on objective or subjective parameters; including the results of a physical examination, a psychiatric evaluation, or a cognition test such as CDR, MMSE, ADAS-Cog, or another test known in the art. For example, the methods of the invention successfully treat a subject's dementia by slowing the rate of or lessening the extent of cognitive decline.

In one embodiment, the term “treating” includes maintaining a subject's CDR rating at its base line rating or at 0. In another embodiment, the term treating includes decreasing a subject's CDR rating by about 0.25 or more, about 0.5 or more, about 1.0 or more, about 1.5 or more, about 2.0 or more, about 2.5 or more, or about 3.0 or more. In another embodiment, the term “treating” also includes reducing the rate of the increase of a subject's CDR rating as compared to historical controls. In another embodiment, the term includes reducing the rate of increase of a subject's CDR rating by about 5% or more, about 10% or more, about 20% or more, about 25% or more, about 30% or more, about 40% or more, about 50% or more, about 60% or more, about 70% or more, about 80% or more, about 90% or more, or about 100%, of the increase of the historical or untreated controls.

In another embodiment, the term “treating” also includes maintaining a subject's score on the MMSE. The term “treating” includes increasing a subject's MMSE score by about 1, about 2, about 3, about 4, about 5, about 7.5, about 10, about 12.5, about 15, about 17.5, about 20, or about 25 points. The term also includes reducing the rate of the decrease of a subject's MMSE score as compared to historical controls. In another embodiment, the term includes reducing the rate of decrease of a subject's MMSE score by about 5% or less, about 10% or less, about 20% or less, about 25% or less, about 30% or less, about 40% or less, about 50% or less, about 60% or less, about 70% or less, about 80% or less, about 90% or less or about 100% or less, of the decrease of the historical or untreated controls.

In yet another embodiment, the term “treating” includes maintaining a subject's score on the ADAS-Cog. The term “treating” includes decreasing a subject's ADAS-Cog score by about 1 point or greater, by about 2 points or greater, by about 3 points or greater, by about 4 points or greater, by about 5 points or greater, by about 7.5 points or greater, by about 10 points or greater, by about 12.5 points or greater, by about 15 points or greater, by about 17.5 points or greater, by about 20 points or greater, or by about 25 points or greater. The term also includes reducing the rate of the increase of a subject's ADAS-Cog score as compared to historical controls. In another embodiment, the term includes reducing the rate of increase of a subject's ADAS-Cog score by about 5% or more, about 10% or more, about 20% or more, about 25% or more, about 30% or more, about 40% or more, about 50% or more, about 60% or more, about 70% or more, about 80% or more, about 90% or more or about 100% of the increase of the historical or untreated controls.

In another embodiment, the term “treating” e.g., for AA or AL amyloidosis, includes an increase in serum creatinine, e.g., an increase of creatinine clearance of 10% or greater, 20% or greater, 50% or greater, 80% or greater, 90% or greater, 100% or greater, 150% or greater, 200% or greater. The term “treating” also may incluce remission of nephrotic syndrome (NS). It may also include remission of chronic diarrhea and/or a gain in body weight, e.g., by 10% or greater, 15% or greater, or 20% or greater.

Without wishing to be bound by theory, in some aspects the pharmaceutical compositions of the invention contain a compound that prevents or inhibits amyloid fibril formation, either in the brain or other organ of interest (acting locally) or throughout the entire body (acting systemically). Pharmaceutical compositions of the invention may be effective in controlling amyloid deposition either following their entry into the brain (following penetration of the blood brain barrier) or from the periphery. When acting from the periphery, a compound of a pharmaceutical composition may alter the equilibrium of amyloidogenic peptide between the brain and the plasma so as to favor the exit of amyloidogenic peptide from the brain. It may also favor clearance (or catabolism) of the amyloid protein (soluble), and then prevent amyloid fibril formation and deposition due to a reduction of the amyloid protein pool in a specific organ, e.g., liver, spleen, pancreas, kidney, joints, brain, etc. An increase in the exit of amyloidogenic peptide from the brain would result in a decrease in amyloidogenic peptide brain concentration and therefore favor a decrease in amyloidogenic peptide deposition. In particular, an agent may lower the levels of amyloid f peptides, e.g., both Aβ40 and Aβ42 in the CSF and the plasma, or the agent may lower the levels of amyloid 0 peptides, e.g., Aβ40 and Aβ42 in the CSF and increase it in the plasma. Alternatively, compounds that penetrate the brain could control deposition by acting directly on brain amyloidogenic peptide e.g., by maintaining it in a non-fibrillar form or favoring its clearance from the brain, by increasing its degradation in the brain, or protecting brain cells from the detrimental effect of amyloidogenic peptide. An agent can also cause a decrease of the concentration of the amyloid protein (i.e., in a specific organ so that the critical concentration needed to trigger amyloid fibril formation or deposition is not reached). Furthermore, the compounds described herein may inhibit or reduce an interaction between amyloid and a cell surface constituent, for example, a glycosaminoglycan or proteoglycan constituent of a basement membrane, whereby inhibiting or reducing this interaction produces the observed neuroprotective and cell-protective effects. For example, the compound may also prevent an amyloid peptide from binding or adhering to a cell surface, a process which is known to cause cell damage or toxicity. Similarly, the compound may block amyloid-induced cellular toxicity or microglial activation or amyloid-induced neurotoxicity, or inhibit amyloid induced inflammation. The compound may also reduce the rate or amount of amyloid aggregation, fibril formation, or deposition, or the compound lessens the degree of amyloid deposition. The foregoing mechanisms of action should not be construed as limiting the scope of the invention inasmuch as the invention may be practiced without such information.

The term “amyloid-β disease” (or “amyloid-β related disease,” which terms as used herein are synonymous) may be used for mild cognitive impairment; vascular dementia; early Alzheimer's disease; Alzheimer's disease, including sporadic (non-hereditary) Alzheimer's disease and familial (hereditary) Alzheimer's disease; age-related cognitive decline; cerebral amyloid angiopathy (“CAA”); hereditary cerebral hemorrhage; senile dementia; Down's syndrome; inclusion body myositis (“IBM”); or age-related macular degeneration (“ARMD”). According to certain aspects of the invention, amyloid-β is a peptide having 39-43 amino-acids, or amyloid-β is an amyloidogenic peptide produced from βAPP.

Mild cognitive impairment (“MCI”) is a condition characterized by a state of mild but measurable impairment in thinking skills, which is not necessarily associated with the presence of dementia. MCI frequently, but not necessarily, precedes Alzheimer's disease. It is a diagnosis that has most often been associated with mild memory problems, but it can also be characterized by mild impairments in other thinking skills, such as language or planning skills. However, in general, an individual with MCI will have more significant memory lapses than would be expected for someone of their age or educational background. As the condition progresses, a physician may change the diagnosis to “Mild-to-Moderate Cognitive Inpairment,” as is well understood in this art.

Cerebral amyloid angiopathy (“CAA”) refers to the specific deposition of amyloid fibrils in the walls of leptomingeal and cortical arteries, arterioles and in capillaries and veins. It is commonly associated with Alzheimer's disease, Down's syndrome and normal aging, as well as with a variety of familial conditions related to stroke or dementia (see Frangione, et al., Amyloid: J. Protein Folding Disord. 8, Suppl. 1, 36-42 (2001)). CAA can occur sporadically or be hereditary. Multiple mutation sites in either Aβ or the APP gene have been identified and are clinically associated with either dementia or cerebral hemorrhage. Exemplary CAA disorders include, but are not limited to, hereditary cerebral hemorrhage with amyloidosis of Icelandic type (HCHWA-1); the Dutch variant of HCHWA (HCHWA-D; a mutation in AP); the Flemish mutation of Aβ; the Arctic mutation of Aβ; the Italian mutation of Aβ; the Iowa mutation of Aβ; familial British dementia; and familial Danish dementia. Cerebral amyloid angiopathy is known to be associated with cerebral hemorrhage (or hemorrhagic stroke).

Additionally, abnormal accumulation of APP and of amyloid-β protein in muscle fibers has been implicated in the pathology of sporadic inclusion body myositis (“IBM”) (Askanas, et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 93, 1314-19 (1996); Askanas, et al., Current Opinion in Rheumatology 7, 486-96 (1995)). Accordingly, the compounds of the invention can be used prophylactically or therapeutically in the treatment of disorders in which amyloid-P protein is abnormally deposited at non-neurological locations, such as treatment of IBM by delivery of the compounds to muscle fibers.

Additionally, it has been shown that AP is associated with abnormal extracellular deposits, known as drusen, that accumulate along the basal surface of the retinal pigmented epithelium in individuals with age-related macular degeneration (ARMD). ARMD is a cause of irreversible vision loss in older individuals. It is believed that AD deposition could be an important component of tke local inflammatory events that contribute to atrophy of the retinal pigmented epithelium, drusen biogenesis, and the pathogenesis of ARMD (Johnson, et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 99(18), 11830-5 (2002)). Therefore, the invention also relates to the treatment or prevention of age-related macular degeneration.

Also, the invention relates to a method for preventing or inhibiting amyloid deposition in a subject. For example, such a method comprises administering to a subject a therapeutically effective amount of a compound capable of reducing the concentration of amyloid (e.g., AL amyloid protein (λ or κ-chain related, e.g., amyloid λ, amyloid κ, amyloid κIV, amyloid λVI, amyloid γ, amyloid γ1), Aβ, IAPP, β₂M, AA, AH amyloid protein, or other amyloids), such that amyloid accumulation or deposition is prevented or inhibited.

In another aspect, the invention relates to a method for preventing, reducing, or inhibiting amyloid deposition in a subject. For example, such a method comprises administering to a subject a therapeutically effective amount of a compound capable of inhibiting amyloid (e.g., AL amyloid protein (λ or κ-chain related, e.g., amyloid λ, amyloid κ, amyloid κIV, amyloid λVI, amyloid γ, amyloid γ1), Aβ, IAPP, β₂M, AA, AH amyloid protein, or other amyloids), such that amyloid deposition is prevented, reduced, or inhibited.

The invention also relates to a method for modulating, e.g., minimizing, amyloid-associated damage to cells, comprising the step of administering a compound capable of reducing the concentration of amyloid (e.g., AL amyloid protein (λ or κ-chain related, e.g., amyloid λ, amyloid κ, amyloid κIV, amyloid λVI, amyloid γ, amyloid γ1), Aβ, IAPP, β₂M, AA, AH amyloid protein, or another amyloid), such that said amyloid-associated damage to cells is modulated. In certain aspects of the invention, the methods for modulating amyloid-associated damage to cells comprise a step of administering a compound capable of reducing the concentration of amyloid or reducing the interaction of an amyloid with a cell surface.

The invention also includes a method for directly or indirectly preventing cell death in a subject, the method comprising administering to a subject a therapeutically effective amount of a compound capable of preventing amyloid (e.g., AL amyloid protein (λ or κ-chain related, e.g., amyloid λ, amyloid κ, amyloid κIV, amyloid λVI, amyloid γ, amyloid γ1), Aβ, IAPP, β₂M, AA, AH amyloid protein, or other amyloid) mediated events that lead, directly or indirectly, to cell death.

In an embodiment, the method is used to treat Alzheimer's disease (e.g. sporadic or familial AD). The method can also be used prophylactically or therapeutically to treat other clinical occurrences of amyloid-β deposition, such as in Down's syndrome individuals and in patients with cerebral amyloid angiopathy (“CAA”) or hereditary cerebral hemorrhage.

The compounds of the invention may be used prophylactically or therapeutically in the treatment of disorders in which amyloid-beta peptide is abnormally deposited at non-neurological locations, such as treatment of IBM by delivery of the compounds to muscle fibers, or treatment of macular degeneration by delivery of the compound(s) of the invention to the basal surface of the retinal pigmented epithelium.

The present invention also provides a method for modulating amyloid-associated damage to cells, comprising the step of administering a compound capable of reducing the concentration of Aβ, or capable of mimimizing the interaction of Aβ (soluble oligomeric or fibrillary) with the cell surface, such that said amyloid-associated damage to cells is modulated. In certain aspects of the invention, the methods for modulating amyloid-associated damage to cells comprise a step of administering a compound capable of reducing the concentration of Aβ or reducing the interaction of Aβ with a cell surface.

In accordance with the present invention, there is further provided a method for preventing cell death in a subject, said method comprising administering to a subject a therapeutically effective amount of a compound capable of preventing Aβ-mediated events that lead, directly or indirectly, to cell death.

The present invention also provides a method for modulating amyloid-associated damage to cells, comprising the step of administering a compound capable of reducing the concentration of IAPP, or capable of mimimizing the interaction of IAPP (soluble oligomeric or fibrillary) with the cell surface, such that said amyloid-associated damage to cells is modulated. In certain aspects of the invention, the methods for modulating amyloid-associated damage to cells comprise a step of administering a compound capable of reducing the concentration of IAPP or reducing the interaction of IAPP with a cell surface.

In accordance with the present invention, there is further provided a method for preventing cell death in a subject, said method comprising administering to a subject a therapeutically effective amount of a compound capable of preventing IAPP-mediated events that lead, directly or indirectly, to cell death.

This invention also provides methods and compositions which are useful in the treatment of amyloidosis. The methods of the invention involve administering to a subject a therapeutic compound which inhibits amyloid deposition. Accordingly, the compositions and methods of the invention are useful for inhibiting amyloidosis in disorders in which amyloid deposition occurs. The methods of the invention can be used therapeutically to treat amyloidosis or can be used prophylactically in a subject susceptible to (hereditary) amyloidosis or identified as being at risk to develop amyloidosis, e.g., hereditary, or identified as being at risk to develop amyloidosis. In certain embodiments, the invention includes a method of inhibiting an interaction between an amyloidogenic protein and a constituent of basement membrane to inhibit amyloid deposition. The constituent of basement membrane is a glycoprotein or proteoglycan, preferably heparan sulfate proteoglycan. A therapeutic compound used in this method may interfere with binding of a basement membrane constituent to a target binding site on an amyloidogenic protein, thereby inhibiting amyloid deposition.

In some aspects, the methods of the invention involve administering to a subject a therapeutic compound which inhibits amyloid deposition. “Inhibition of amyloid deposition,” includes the prevention of amyloid formation, inhibition of further amyloid deposition in a subject with ongoing armyloidosis and reduction of amyloid deposits in a subject with ongoing amyloidosis. Inhibition of amyloid deposition is determined relative to an untreated subject or relative to the treated subject prior to treatment. In an embodiment, amyloid deposition is inhibited by inhibiting an interaction between an amyloidogenic protein and a constituent of basement membrane. “Basement membrane” refers to an extracellular matrix comprising glycoproteins and proteoglycans, including laminin, collagen type IV, fibronectin, perlecan, agrin, dermatan sulfate, and heparan sulfate proteoglycan (HSPG). In one embodiment, amyloid deposition is inhibited by interfering with an interaction between an amyloidogenic protein and a sulfated glycosaminoglycan such as HSPG, dermatan sulfate, perlecan or agrin sulfate. Sulfated glycosaminoglycans are known to be present in all types of amyloids (see Snow, et al. Lab. Invest. 56, 120-23 (1987)) and amyloid deposition and HSPG deposition occur coincidentally in animal models of amyloidosis (see Snow, et al. Lab. Invest. 56, 665-75 (1987) and Gervais, F. et al. Curr. Med. Chem., 3, 361-370 (2003)). Consensus binding site motifs for HSPG in amyloidogenic proteins have been described (see, e.g., Cardin and Weintraub Arteriosclerosis 9, 21-32 (1989)).

The ability of a compound to prevent or block the formation or deposition of amyloid may reside in its ability to bind to non-fibrillar, soluble amyloid protein and to maintain its solubililty.

The ability of a therapeutic compound of the invention to inhibit an interaction between an amyloidogenic protein and a glycoprotein or proteoglycan constituent of a basement membrane can be assessed by an in vitro binding assay, such as that described in U.S. Pat. No. 5,164,295, the contents of which are hereby incorporated by reference. Alternatively, the ability of a compound to bind to an amyloidogenic protein or to inhibit the binding of a basement membrane constituent (e.g. HSPG) to an amyloidogenic protein (e.g. AP) can be measured using a mass spectrometry assay where soluble protein, e.g. Aβ, IAPP, O₂M is incubated with the compound. A compound which binds to, e.g. Aβ, will induce a change in the mass spectrum of the protein. Exemplary protocols for a mass spectrometry assay employing Aβ and IAPP can be found in the Examples, the results of which are provided in Table 3. The protocol can readily be modified to adjust the sensitivity of the data, e.g., by adjusting the amount of protein and/or compound employed. Thus, e.g., binding might be detected for test compounds noted as not having detectable binding employing less sensitive test protocols.

Alternative methods for screening compounds exist and can readily be employed by a skilled practitioner to provide an indication of the ability of test compounds to bind to, e.g., fibrillar Aβ. One such screening assay is an ultraviolet absorption assay. In an exemplary protocol, a test compound (20 μM) is incubated with 50 μM A(1-40) fibers for 1 hour at 37° C. in Tris buffered saline (20 mM Tris, 150 mM NaCl, pH 7.4 containing 0.01 sodium azide). Following incubation, the solution is centrifuged for 20 minutes at 21,000 g to sediment the Aβ(1-40) fibers along with any bound test compound. The amount of test compound remaining in the supernatant can then be determined by reading the absorbance. The fraction of test compound bound can then be calculated by comparing the amount remaining in the supernatants of incubations with Aβ to the amount remaining in control incubations which do not contain Aβ fibers. Thioflavin T and Congo Red, both of which are known to bind to Aβ fibers, may be included in each assay run as positive controls. Before assaying, test compounds can be diluted to 40 μM, which would be twice the concentration in the final test, and then scanned using the Hewlett Packard 8453 UV/VIS spectrophotometer to determine if the absorbance is sufficient for detection.

In another embodiment, the invention pertains to a method for improving cognition in a subject suffering from an amyloid-related disease. The method includes administering an effective amount of a therapeutic compound of the invention, such that the subject's cognition is improved. The subject's cognition can be tested using methods known in the art such as the Clinical Dementia Rating (“CDR”), Mini-Mental State Examination (“MMSE”), and the Alzheimer's Disease Assessment Scale-Cognition (“ADAS-Cog”).

In another embodiment, the invention pertains to a method for treating a subject for an amyloid-related disease. The method includes administering a cognitive test to a subject prior to administration of a compound of the invention, administering an effective amount of a compound of the invention to the subject, and administering a cognitive test to the subject subsequent to administration of the compound, such that the subject is treated for the amyloid-related disease, wherein the subject's score on said cognitive test is improved.

“Improvement,” “improved” or “improving” in cognition is present within the context of the present invention if there is a statistically significant difference in the direction of normality between the performance of subjects treated using the methods of the invention as compared to members of a placebo group, historical control, or between subsequent tests given to the same subject.

In one embodiment, a subject's CDR is maintained at 0. In another embodiment, a subject's CDR is decreased (e.g., improved) by about 0.25 or more, about 0.5 or more, about 1.0 or more, about 1.5 or more, about 2.0 or more, about 2.5 or more, or about 3.0 or more. In another embodiment, the rate of increase of a subject's CDR rating is reduced by about 5% or more, about 10% or more, about 20% or more, about 25% or more, about 30% or more, about 40% or more, about 50% or more, about 60% or more, about 70% or more, about 80% or more, about 90% or more, or about 100% or more of the increase of the historical or untreated controls.

In one embodiment, a subject's score on the MMSE is maintained. Alternatively, the subject's score on the MMSE may be increased by about 1, about 2, about 3, about 4, about 5, about 7.5, about 10, about 12.5, about 15, about 17.5, about 20, or about 25 points. In another alternative, the rate of the decrease of a subject's MMSE score as compared to historical controls is reduced. For example, the rate of the decrease of a subject's MMSE score may be reduced by about 5% or more, about 10% or more, about 20% or more, about 25% or more, about 30% or more, about 40% or more, about 50% or more, about 60% or more, about 70% or more, about 80% or more, about 90% or more, or about 100% or more of the decrease of the historical or untreated controls.

In one embodiment, the invention pertains to a method for treating, slowing or stopping an amyloid-related disease associated with cognitve impairment, by administering to a subject an effective amount of a therapeutic compound of the invention, wherein the annual deterioration of the subject's cognition as measured by ADAS-Cog is less than 8 points per year, less the 6 points per year, less than 5 points per year, less than 4 points per year, or less than 3 points per year. In a further embodiment, the invention pertains to a method for treating, slowing or stopping an amyloid-related disease associated with cognition by administering an effective amount of a therapeutic compound of the invention such that the subject's cognition as measured by ADAS-Cog remains constant over a year. “Constant” includes fluctuations of no more than 2 points. Remaining constant includes fluctuations of two points or less in either direction. In a further embodiment, the subject's cognition improves by 2 points or greater per year, 3 points or greater per year, 4 point or greater per year, 5 points or greater per year, 6 points or greater per year, 7 points or greater per year, 8 points or greater per year, etc. as measured by the ADAS-Cog. In another alternative, the rate of the increase of a subject's ADAS-Cog score as compared to historical controls is reduced. For example, the rate of the increase of a subject's ADAS-Cog score may be reduced by about 5% or more, about 10% or more, about 20% or more, about 25% or more, about 30% or more, about 40% or more, about 50% or more, about 60% or more, about 70% or more, about 80% or more, about 90% or more or about 100% of the increase of the historical or untreated controls.

In another embodiment, the ratio of Aβ42:Aβ40 in the CSF or plasma of a subject decreases by about 15% or more, about 20% or more, about 25% or more, about 30% or more, about 35% or more, about 40% or more, about 45% or more, or about 50% or more. In another embodiment, the levels of Aβ in the subject's cerebrospinal fluid decrease by about 15% or more, about 25% or more, about 35% or more, about 45% or more, about 55% or more, about 75% or more, or about 90% or more.

It is to be understood that wherever values and ranges are provided herein, e.g., in ages of subject populations, dosages, and blood levels, all values and ranges encompassed by these values and ranges, are meant to be encompassed within the scope of the present invention. Moreover, all values in these values and ranges may also be the upper or lower limits of a range.

Furthermore, the invention pertains to any novel chemical compound described herein. That is, the invention relates to novel compounds, and novel methods of their use as described herein, which are within the scope of the Formulae disclosed herein, and which are not disclosed in the cited patents and patent applications.

Synthesis of Compounds of the Invention

In general, the compounds of the present invention may be prepared by the methods illustrated in the general reaction schemes as, for example, described below, or by modifications thereof, using readily available starting materials, reagents and conventional synthesis procedures. In these reactions, it is also possible to make use of variants which are in themselves known, but are not mentioned here. Functional and structural equivalents of the compounds described herein and which have the same general properties, wherein one or more simple variations of substituents are made which do not adversely affect the essential nature or the utility of the compound are also included.

The compounds of the present invention may be readily prepared in accordance with the synthesis schemes and protocols described herein, as illustrated in the specific procedures provided. However, those skilled in the art will recognize that other synthetic pathways for forming the compounds of this invention may be used, and that the following is provided merely by way of example, and is not limiting to the present invention. See, e.g., “Comprehensive Organic Transformations” by R. Larock, VCH Publishers (1989). It will be further recognized that various protecting and deprotecting strategies will be employed that are standard in the art (See, e.g., “Protective Groups in Organic Synthesis” by Greene and Wuts). Those skilled in the relevant arts will recognize that the selection of any particular protecting group (e.g., amine and carboxylprotecting groups) will depend on the stability of the protected moiety with regards to the subsequent reaction conditions and will understand the appropriate selections.

Further illustrating the knowledge of those skilled in the art is the following sampling of the extensive chemical literature: “Chemistry of the Amino Acids” by J. P. Greenstein and M. Winitz, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York (1961); “Comprehensive Organic Transformations” by R. Larock, VCH Publishers (1989); T. D. Ocain, et al., J. Med. Chem. 31, 2193-99 (1988); E. M. Gordon, et al., J. Med. Chem. 31, 2199-10 (1988); “Practice of Peptide Synthesis” by M. Bodansky and A. Bodanszky, Springer-Verlag, New York (1984); “Protective Groups in Organic Synthesis” by T. Greene and P. Wuts (1991); “Asymmetric Synthesis: Construction of Chiral Molecules Using Amino Acids” by G. M. Coppola and H. F. Schuster, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York (1987); “The Chemical Synthesis of Peptides” by J. Jones, Oxford University Press, New York (1991); and “Introduction of Peptide Chemistry” by P. D. Bailey, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York (1992).

The synthesis of compounds of the invention is carried out in a solvent. Suitable solvents are liquids at ambient room temperature and pressure or remain in the liquid state under the temperature and pressure conditions used in the reaction. Useful solvents are not particularly restricted provided that they do not interfere with the reaction itself (that is, they preferably are inert solvents), and they dissolve a certain amount of the reactants. Depending on the circumstances, solvents may be distilled or degassed. Solvents may be, for example, aliphatic hydrocarbons (e.g., hexanes, heptanes, ligroin, petroleum ether, cyclohexane, or methylcyclohexane) and halogenated-hydrocarbons (e.g., methylenechloride, chloroform, carbontetrachloride, dichloroethane, chlorobenzene, or dichlororbenzene); aromatic hydrocarbons (e.g., benzene, toluene, tetrahydronaphthalene, ethylbenzene, or xylene); ethers (e.g., diglyme, methyl-tert-butyl ether, methyl-tert-amyl ether, ethyl-tert-butyl ether, diethylether, diisopropylether, tetrahydrofuran or methyltetrahydrofurans, dioxane, dimethoxyethane, or diethyleneglycol dimethylether); nitriles (e.g., acetonitrile); ketones (e.g., acetone); esters (e.g., methyl acetate or ethyl acetate); and mixtures thereof.

In general, after completion of the reaction, the product is isolated from the reaction mixture according to standard techniques. For example, the solvent is removed by evaporation or filtration if the product is solid, optionally under reduced pressure. After the completion of the reaction, water may be added to the residue to make the aqueous layer acidic or basic and the precipitated compound filtered, although care should be exercised when handling water-sensitive compounds. Similarly, water may be added to the reaction mixture with a hydrophobic solvent to extract the target compound. The organic layer may be washed with water, dried over anhydrous magnesium sulphate or sodium sulphate, and the solvent is evaporated to obtain the target compound. The target compound thus obtained may be purified, if necessary, e.g., by recrystallization, reprecipitation, chromatography, or by converting it to a salt by addition of an acid or base.

The compounds of the invention may be supplied in a solution with an appropriate solvent or in a solvent-free form (e.g., lyophilized). In another aspect of the invention, the compounds and buffers necessary for carrying out the methods of the invention may be packaged as a kit, optionlly including a container. The kit may be commercially used for treating or preventing amyloid-related disease according to the methods described herein and may include instructions for use in a method of the invention. Additional kit components may include acids, bases, buffering agents, inorganic salts, solvents, antioxidants, preservatives, or metal chelators. The additional kit components are present as pure compositions, or as aqueous or organic solutions that incorporate one or more additional kit components. Any or all of the kit components optionally further comprise buffers.

The term “container” includes any receptacle for holding the therapeutic compound. For example, in one embodiment, the container is the packaging that contains the compound. In other embodiments, the container is not the packaging that contains the compound, i.e., the container is a receptacle, such as a box or vial that contains the packaged compound or unpackaged compound and the instructions for use of the compound. Moreover, packaging techniques are well known in the art. It should be understood that the instructions for use of the therapeutic compound may be contained on the packaging containing the therapeutic compound, and as such the instructions form an increased functional relationship to the packaged product.

Pharmaceutical Preparations

In another embodiment, the present invention relates to pharmaceutical compositions comprising agents according to any of the Formulae herein for the treatment of an amyloid-related disease, as well as methods of manufacturing such pharmaceutical compositions.

In general, the agents of the present invention may be prepared by the methods illustrated in the general reaction schemes as, for example, in the patents and patent applications refered to herein, or by modifications thereof, using readily available starting materials, reagents and conventional synthesis procedures. In these reactions, it is also possible to make use of variants which are in themselves known, but are not mentioned here. Functional and structural equivalents of the agents described herein and which have the same general properties, wherein one or more simple variations of substituents are made which do not adversely affect the essential nature or the utility of the agent are also included.

The agents of the invention may be supplied in a solution with an appropriate solvent or in a solvent-free form (e.g., lyophilized). In another aspect of the invention, the agents and buffers necessary for carrying out the methods of the invention may be packaged as a kit. The kit may be commercially used according to the methods described herein and may include instructions for use in a method of the invention. Additional kit components may include acids, bases, buffering agents, inorganic salts, solvents, antioxidants, preservatives, or metal chelators. The additional kit components are present as pure compositions, or as aqueous or organic solutions that incorporate one or more additional kit components. Any or all of the kit components optionally further comprise buffers.

The therapeutic agent may also be administered parenterally, intraperitoneally, intraspinally, or intracerebrally. Dispersions can be prepared in glycerol, liquid polyethylene glycols, and mixtures thereof and in oils. Under ordinary conditions of storage and use, these preparations may contain a preservative to prevent the growth of microorganisms.

To administer the therapeutic agent by other than parenteral administration, it may be necessary to coat the agent with, or co-administer the agent with, a material to prevent its inactivation. For example, the therapeutic agent may be administered to a subject in an appropriate carrier, for example, liposomes, or a diluent. Pharmaceutically acceptable diluents include saline and aqueous buffer solutions. Liposomes include water-in-oil-in-water CGF emulsions as well as conventional liposomes (Strejan et al., J. Neuroimmunol. 7, 27 (1984)).

Pharmaceutical compositions suitable for injectable use include sterile aqueous solutions (where water soluble) or dispersions and sterile powders for the extemporaneous preparation of sterile injectable solutions or dispersion. In all cases, the composition must be sterile and must be fluid to the extent that easy syringability exists. It must be stable under the conditions of manufacture and storage and must be preserved against the contaminating action of microorganisms such as bacteria and fungi.

Suitable pharmaceutically acceptable vehicles include, without limitation, any non-immunogenic pharmaceutical adjuvants suitable for oral, parenteral, nasal, mucosal, transdermal, intravascular (IV), intraarterial (IA), intramuscular (IM), and subcutaneous (SC) administration routes, such as phosphate buffer saline (PBS).

The vehicle can be a solvent or dispersion medium containing, for example, water, ethanol, polyol (for example, glycerol, propylene glycol, and liquid polyethylene glycol, and the like), suitable mixtures thereof, and vegetable oils. The proper fluidity can be maintained, for example, by the use of a coating such as lecithin, by the maintenance of the required particle size in the case of dispersion and by the use of surfactants. Prevention of the action of microorganisms can be achieved by various antibacterial and antifungal agents, for example, parabens, chlorobutanol, phenol, ascorbic acid, thimerosal, and the like. In many cases, isotonic agents are included, for example, sugars, sodium chloride, or polyalcohols such as mannitol and sorbitol, in the composition. Prolonged absorption of the injectable compositions can be brought about by including in the composition an agent which delays absorption, for example, aluminum monostearate or gelatin.

Sterile injectable solutions can be prepared by incorporating the therapeutic agent in the required amount in an appropriate solvent with one or a combination of ingredients enumerated above, as required, followed by filtered sterilization. Generally, dispersions are prepared by incorporating the therapeutic agent into a sterile vehicle which contains a basic dispersion medium and the required other ingredients from those enumerated above. In the case of sterile powders for the preparation of sterile injectable solutions, the methods of preparation are vacuum drying and freeze-drying which yields a powder of the active ingredient (i.e., the therapeutic agent) plus any additional desired ingredient from a previously sterile-filtered solution thereof.

The therapeutic agent can be orally administered, for example, with an inert diluent or an assimilable edible carrier. The therapeutic agent and other ingredients may also be enclosed in a hard or soft shell gelatin capsule, compressed into tablets, or incorporated directly into the subject's diet. For oral therapeutic administration, the therapeutic agent may be incorporated with excipients and used in the form of ingestible tablets, buccal tablets, troches, capsules, elixirs, suspensions, syrups, wafers, and the like. The percentage of the therapeutic agent in the compositions and preparations may, of course, be varied. The amount of the therapeutic agent in such therapeutically useful compositions is such that a suitable dosage will be obtained.

It is especially advantageous to formulate parenteral compositions in dosage unit form for ease of administration and uniformity of dosage. Dosage unit form as used herein refers to physically discrete units suited as unitary dosages for the subjects to be treated; each unit containing a predetermined quantity of therapeutic agent calculated to produce the desired therapeutic effect in association with the required pharmaceutical vehicle. The specification for the dosage unit forms of the invention are dictated by and directly dependent on (a) the unique characteristics of the therapeutic agent and the particular therapeutic effect to be achieved, and (b) the limitations inherent in the art of compounding such a therapeutic agent for the treatment of amyloid deposition in subjects.

The present invention therefore includes pharmaceutical formulations comprising the agents of the Formulae described herein, including pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof, in pharmaceutically acceptable vehicles for aerosol, oral and parenteral administration. Also, the present invention includes such agents, or salts thereof, which have been lyophilized and which may be reconstituted to form pharmaceutically acceptable formulations for administration, as by intravenous, intramuscular, or subcutaneous injection. Administration may also be intradermal or transdermal.

In accordance with the present invention, an agent of the Formulae described herein, and pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof, may be administered orally or through inhalation as a solid, or may be administered intramuscularly or intravenously as a solution, suspension or emulsion. Alternatively, the agents or salts may also be administered by inhalation, intravenously or intramuscularly as a liposomal suspension.

Pharmaceutical formulations are also provided which are suitable for administration as an aerosol, by inhalation. These formulations comprise a solution or suspension of the desired agent of any Formula herein, or a salt thereof, or a plurality of solid particles of the agent or salt. The desired formulation may be placed in a small chamber and nebulized. Nebulization may be accomplished by compressed air or by ultrasonic energy to form a plurality of liquid droplets or solid particles comprising the agents or salts. The liquid droplets or solid particles should have a particle size in the range of about 0.5 to about 5 microns. The solid particles can be obtained by processing the solid agent of any Formula described herein, or a salt thereof, in any appropriate manner known in the art, such as by micronization. The size of the solid particles or droplets will be, for example, from about 1 to about 2 microns. In this respect, commercial nebulizers are available to achieve this purpose.

A pharmaceutical formulation suitable for administration as an aerosol may be in the form of a liquid, the formulation will comprise a water-soluble agent of any Formula described herein, or a salt thereof, in a carrier which comprises water. A surfactant may be present which lowers the surface tension of the formulation sufficiently to result in the formation of droplets within the desired size range when subjected to nebulization.

Peroral compositions also include liquid solutions, emulsions, suspensions, and the like. The pharmaceutically acceptable vehicles suitable for preparation of such compositions are well known in the art. Typical components of carriers for syrups, elixirs, emulsions and suspensions include ethanol, glycerol, propylene glycol, polyethylene glycol, liquid sucrose, sorbitol and water. For a suspension, typical suspending agents include methyl cellulose, sodium carboxymethyl cellulose, tragacanth, and sodium alginate; typical-wetting agents include lecithin and polysorbate 80; and typical preservatives include methyl paraben and sodium benzoate. Peroral liquid compositions may also contain one or more components such as sweeteners, flavoring agents and colorants disclosed above.

Pharmaceutical compositions may also be coated by conventional methods, typically with pH or time-dependent coatings, such that the subject agent is released in the gastrointestinal tract in the vicinity of the desired topical application, or at various times to extend the desired action. Such dosage forms typically include, but are not limited to, one or more of cellulose acetate phthalate, polyvinylacetate phthalate, hydroxypropyl methyl cellulose phthalate, ethyl cellulose, waxes, and shellac.

Other compositions useful for attaining systemic delivery of the subject agents include sublingual, buccal and nasal dosage forms. Such compositions typically comprise one or more of soluble filler substances such as sucrose, sorbitol and mannitol; and binders such as acacia, microcrystalline cellulose, carboxymethyl cellulose and hydroxypiopyl methyl cellulose. Glidants, lubricants, sweeteners, colorants, antioxidants and flavoring agents disclosed above may also be included.

The compositions of this invention can also be administered topically to a subject, e.g., by the direct laying on or spreading of the composition on the epidermal or epithelial tissue of the subject, or transdermally via a “patch”. Such compositions include, for example, lotions, creams, solutions, gels and solids. These topical compositions may comprise an effective amount, usually at least about 0.1%, or even from about 1% to about 5%, of an agent of the invention. Suitable carriers for topical administration typically remain in place on the skin as a continuous film, and resist being removed by perspiration or immersion in water. Generally, the carrier is organic in nature and capable of having dispersed or dissolved therein the therapeutic agent. The carrier may include pharmaceutically acceptable emolients, emulsifiers, thickening agents, solvents and the like.

In one embodiment, active agents are administered at a therapeutically effective dosage sufficient to inhibit amyloid deposition in a subject. A “therapeutically effective” dosage inhibits amyloid deposition by, for example, at least about 20%, or by at least about 40%, or even by at least about 60%, or by at least about 80% relative to untreated subjects. In the case of an Alzheimer's subject, a “therapeutically effective” dosage stabilizes cognitive function or prevents a further decrease in cognitive function (i.e., preventing, slowing, or stopping disease progression). The present invention accordingly provides therapeutic drugs. By “therapeutic” or “drug” is meant an agent having a beneficial ameliorative or prophylactic effect on a specific disease or condition in a living human or non-human animal.

In the case of AA or AL amyloidosis, the agent may improve or stabilize specific organ function. As an example, renal function may be stabilized or improved by 10% or greater, 20% or greater, 30% or greater, 40% or greater, 50% or greater, 60% or greater, 70% or greater, 80% or greater, or by greater than 90%.

In the case of IAPP, the agent may maintain or increase P-islet cell function, as determined by insulin concentration or the Pro-IAPP/IAPP ratio. In a further embodiment, the Pro-IAPP/IAPP ratio is increased by about 10% or greater, about 20% or greater, about 30% or greater, about 40% or greater, or by about 50%. In a further embodiment, the ratio is increased up to 50%. In addition, a therapeutically effective amount of the agent may be effective to improve glycemia or insulin levels.

In another embodiment, the active agents are administered at a therapeutically effective dosage sufficient to treat AA (secondary) amyloidosis and/or AL (primary) amyloidosis, by stabilizing renal function, decreasing proteinuria, increasing creatinine clearance (e.g., by at least 50% or greater or by at least 100% or greater), remission of chronic diarrhea, or by weight gain (e.g., 10% or greater). In addition, the agents may be administered at a therapeutically effective dosage sufficient to improve nephrotic syndrome.

Furthermore, active agents may be administered at a therapeutically effective dosage sufficient to decrease deposition in a subject of amyloid protein, e.g., Aβ40 or Aβ42. A therapeutically effective dosage decreases amyloid deposition by, for example, at least about 15%, or by at least about 40%, or even by at least 60%, or at least by about 80% relative to untreated subjects.

In another embodiment, active agents are administered at a therapeutically effective dosage sufficient to increase or enhance amyloid protein, e.g., Aβ40 or Aβ42, in the blood, CSF, or plasma of a subject. A therapeutically effective dosage increases the concentration by, for example, at least about 15%, or by at least about 40%, or even by at least 60%, or at least by about 80% relative to untreated subjects.

In yet another embodiment, active agents are administered at a therapeutically effective dosage sufficient to maintain a subject's CDR rating at its base line rating or at 0. In another embodiment, the active agents are administered at a therapeutically effective dosage sufficient to decrease a subject's CDR rating by about 0.25 or more, about 0.5 or more, about 1.0 or more, about 1.5 or more, about 2.0 or more, about 2.5 or more, or about 3.0 or more. In another embodiment, the active agents are administered at a therapeutically effective dosage sufficient to reduce the rate of the increase of a subject's CDR rating as compared to historical or untreated controls. In another embodiment, the therapeutically effective dosage is sufficient to reduce the rate of increase of a subject's CDR rating (relative to untreated subjects) by about 5% or greater, about 10% or greater, about 20% or greater, about 25% or greater, about 30% or greater, about 40% or greater, about 50% or greater, about 60% or greater, about 70% or greater, about 80% or greater, about 90% or greater or about 100% or greater.

In yet another embodiment, active agents are administered at a therapeutically effective dosage sufficient to maintain a subject's score on the MMSE. In another embodiment, the active agents are administered at a therapeutically effective dosage sufficient to increase a subject's MMSE score by about 1, about 2, about 3, about 4, about 5, about 7.5, about 10, about 12.5, about 15, about 17.5, about 20, or about 25 points. In another embodiment, the active agents are administered at a therapeutically effective dosage sufficient to reduce the rate of the decrease of a subject's MMSE score as compared to historical controls. In another embodiment, the therapeutically effective dosage is sufficient to reduce the rate of decrease of a subject's MMSE score may be about 5% or less, about 10% or less, about 20% or less, about 25% or less, about 30% or less, about 40% or less, about 50% or less, about 60% or less, about 70% or less, about 80% or less, about 90% or less or about 100% or less, of the decrease of the historical or untreated controls.

In yet another embodiment, active agents are administered at a therapeutically effective dosage sufficient to maintain a subject's score on the ADAS-Cog. In another embodiment, the active agents are administered at a therapeutically effective dosage sufficient to decrease a subject's ADAS-Cog score by about 2 points or greater, by about 3 points or greater, by about 4 points or greater, by about 5 points or greater, by about 7.5 points or greater, by about 10 points or greater, by about 12.5 points or greater, by about 15 points or greater, by about 17.5 points or greater, by about 20 points or greater, or by about 25 points or greater. In another embodiment, the active agents are administered at a therapeutically effective dosage sufficient to reduce the rate of the increase of a subject's ADAS-Cog scores as compared to historical or untreated controls. In another embodiment, the therapeutically effective dosage is sufficient to reduce the rate of increase of a subject's ADAS-Cog scores (relative to untreated subjects) by about 5% or greater, about 10% or greater, about 20% or greater, about 25% or greater, about 30% or greater, about 40% or greater, about 50% or greater, about 60% or greater, about 70% or greater, about 80% or greater, about 90% or greater or about 100% or greater.

In another embodiment, active agents are administered at a therapeutically effective dosage sufficient to decrease the ratio of Aβ42:Aβ40 in the CSF or plasma of a subject by about 15% or more, about 20% or more, about 25% or more, about 30% or more, about 35% or more, about 40% or more, about 45% or more, or about 50% or more.

In another embodiment, active agents are administered at a therapeutically effective dosage sufficient to lower levels of Aβ in the CSF or plasma of a subject by about 15% or more, about 25% or more, about 35% or more, about 45% or more, about 55% or more, about 75% or more, or about 95% or more.

Toxicity and therapeutic efficacy of such agents can be determined by standard pharmaceutical procedures in cell cultures or experimental animals, e.g. for determining the LD50 (the dose lethal to 50% of the population) and the ED50 (the dose therapeutically effective in 50% of the population). The dose ratio between toxic and therapeutic effects is the therapeutic index and can be expressed as the ratio LD50/ED50, and usually a larger therapeutic index is more efficacious. While agents that exhibit toxic side effects may be used, care should be taken to design a delivery system that targets such agents to the site of affected tissue in order to minimize potential damage to unaffected cells and, thereby, reduce side effects.

It is understood that appropriate doses depend upon a number of factors within the ken of the ordinarily skilled physician, veterinarian, or researcher. The dose(s) of the small molecule will vary, for example, depending upon the identity, size, and condition of the subject or sample being treated, further depending upon the route by which the composition is to be administered, if applicable, and the effect which the practitioner desires the small molecule to have upon the subject. Exemplary doses include milligram or microgram amounts of the small molecule per kilogram of subject or sample weight (e.g., about 1 microgram per kilogram to about 500 milligrams per kilogram, about 100 micrograms per kilogram to about 5 milligrams per kilogram, or about 1 microgram per kilogram to about 50 micrograms per kilogram). It is furthermore understood that appropriate doses depend upon the potency. Such appropriate doses may be determined using the assays described herein. When one or more of these compounds is to be administered to an animal (e.g., a human), a physician, veterinarian, or researcher may, for example, prescribe a relatively low dose at first, subsequently increasing the dose until an appropriate response is obtained. In addition, it is understood that the specific dose level for any particular animal subject will depend upon a variety of factors including the activity of the specific agent employed, the age, body weight, general health, gender, and diet of the subject, the time of administration, the route of administration, the rate of excretion, and any drug combination.

The ability of an agent to inhibit amyloid deposition can be evaluated in an animal model system that may be predictive of efficacy in inhibiting amyloid deposition in human diseases, such as a transgenic mouse expressing human APP or other relevant animal models where Aβ deposition is seen or for example in an animal model of AA amyloidosis. Likewise, the ability of an agent to prevent or reduce cognitive impairment in a model system may be indicative of efficacy in humans. Alternatively, the ability of an agent can be evaluated by examining the ability of the agent to inhibit amyloid fibril formation in vitro, e.g., using a fibrillogenesis assay such as that described herein, including a ThT, CD, or EM assay. Also the binding of an agent to amyloid fibrils may be measured using a MS assay as described herein. The ability of the agent to protect cells from amyloid induced toxicity is determined in vitro using biochemical assays to determine percent cell death induced by amyloid protein. The ability of an agent to modulate renal function may also be evaluated in an appropriate animal model system.

The therapeutic agent of the invention may be also be administered ex vivo to inhibit amyloid deposition or treat certain amyloid-related diseases, such as β₂M amyloidosis and other amyloidoses related to dialysis. Ex vivo administration of the therapeutic agents of the invention can be accomplished by contacting a body fluid (e.g., blood, plasma, etc.) with a therapeutic compound of the invention such that the therapeutic compound is capable of performing its intended function and administering the body fluid to the subject. The therapeutic compound of the invention may perform its function ex vivo (e.g., dialysis filter), in vivo (e.g., administered with the body fluid), or both. For example, a therapeutic compound of the invention may be used to reduce plasma β₂M levels and/or maintain β₂M in its soluble form ex vivo, in vivo, or both.

Blood-Brain Barrier

Regardless of the particular mechanism by which the compound exerts its biological effects, the compound prevents or treats amyloid-related diseases, such as for example Alzheimer's disease, CAA, diabetes related amyloidosis, AL amyloidosis, Down's syndrome, or β₂M amyloidosis. The compound may reverse or favor deposition of amyloid or the compound may favor plaque clearance or slow deposition. For example, the compound may decrease the amyloid concentration in the brain of a subject versus an untreated subject. The compound may penetrate into the brain by crossing the blood-brain barrier (“BBB”) to exert its biological effect. The compound may maintain soluble amyloid in a non-fibrillar form, or alternatively, the compound may increase the rate of clearance of soluble amyloid from the brain of a subject versus an untreated subject. The compound may also increase the rate of degradation of Aβ in the brain prior to organization into fibrils. A compound may also act in the periphery, causing a change in the equilibrium of the amyloid protein concentration in the two compartments (i.e., systemic vs. central), in which case a compound may not be required to penetrate the brain to decrease the concentration of Aβ in the brain (a “sink” effect).

Agents of the invention that exert their physiological effect in vivo in the brain may be more useful if they gain access to target cells in the brain. Non-limiting examples of brain cells are neurons, glial cells (astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, microglia), cerebrovascular cells (muscle cells, endothelial cells), and cells that comprise the meninges. The blood brain barrier (“BBB”) typically restricts access to brain cells by acting as a physical and functional blockade that separates the brain parenchyma from the systemic circulation (see, e.g., Pardridge, et al., J. Neurovirol. 5(6), 556-69 (1999); Rubin, et al., Rev. Neurosci. 22, 11-28 (1999)). Circulating molecules are normally able to gain access to brain cells via one of two processes: lipid-mediated transport through the BBB by free diffusion, or active (or catalyzed) transport.

The agents of the invention may be formulated to improve distribution in vivo, for example as powdered or liquid tablet or solution for oral administration or as a nasal spray, nose drops, a gel or ointment, through a tube or catheter, by syringe, by packtail, by pledget, or by submucosal infusion. For example, the blood-brain barrier (BBB) excludes many highly hydrophilic agents. To ensure that the more hydrophilic therapeutic agents of the invention cross the BBB, they may be formulated, for example, in liposomes. For methods of manufacturing liposomes, see, e.g., U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,522,811; 5,374,548; and 5,399,331. The liposomes may comprise one or more moieties which are selectively transported into specific cells or organs (“targeting moieties” or “targeting groups” or “transporting vectors”), thus providing targeted drug delivery (see, e.g., V. V. Ranade J. Clin. Pharmacol. 29, 685 (1989)). Likewise, the agents may be linked to targeting groups that facilitate penetration of the blood brain barrier. In one embodiment, the method of the present invention employs a naturally occurring polyamine linked to an agent that is a small molecule and is useful for inhibiting e.g., AP deposition.

To facilitate transport of agents of the invention across the BBB, they may be coupled to a BBB transport vector (for review of BBB transport vectors and mechanisms, see, Bickel, et al., Adv. Drug Delivery Reviews 46, 247-79 (2001)). Exemplary transport vectors include cationized albumin or the OX26 monoclonal antibody to the transferrin receptor; these proteins undergo absorptive-mediated and receptor-mediated transcytosis through the BBB, respectively. Natural cell metabolites that may be used as targeting groups, include, inter alia, putrescine, spermidine, spermine, or DHA. Other exemplary targeting moieties include folate or biotin (see, e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 5,416,016); mannosides (Umezawa, et al., Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 153, 1038 (1988)); antibodies (P. G. Bloeman, et al., FEBS Lett. 357, 140 (1995); M. Owais, et al., Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 39, 180 (1995)); surfactant protein A receptor (Briscoe, et al., Am. J. Physiol. 1233, 134 (1995)); gp120 (Schreier, et al., J. Biol. Chem. 269, 9090 (1994)); see also, K. Keinanen and M. L. Laukkanen, FEBS Lett. 346, 123 (1994); J. J. Killion and I. J. Fidler, Immunomethods 4, 273 (1994).

Examples of other BBB transport vectors that target receptor-mediated transport systems into the brain include factors such as insulin, insulin-like growth factors (“IGF-I,” and “IGF-II”), angiotensin II, atrial and brain natriuretic peptide (“ANP,” and “BNP”), interleukin I (“IL-1”) and transferrin. Monoclonal antibodies to the receptors that bind these factors may also be used as BBB transport vectors. BBB transport vectors targeting mechanisms for absorptive-mediated transcytosis include cationic moieties such as cationized LDL, albumin or horseradish peroxidase coupled with polylysine, cationized albumin or cationized immunoglobulins. Small basic oligopeptides such as the dynorphin analogue E-2078 and the ACTH analogue ebiratide may also cross the brain via absorptive-mediated transcytosis and are potential transport vectors.

Other BBB transport vectors target systems for transporting nutrients into the brain. Examples of such BBB transport vectors include hexose moieties, e.g., glucose and monocarboxylic acids, e.g., lactic acid and neutral amino acids, e.g., phenylalanine and amines, e.g., choline and basic amino acids, e.g., arginine, nucleosides, e.g., adenosine and purine bases, e.g., adenine, and thyroid hormone, e.g., triiodothyridine. Antibodies to the extracellular domain of nutrient transporters may also be used as transport vectors. Other possible vectors include angiotensin II and ANP, which may be involved in regulating BBB permeability.

In some cases, the bond linking the therapeutic agent to the transport vector may be cleaved following transport into the brain in order to liberate the biologically active agent. Exemplary linkers include disulfide bonds, ester-based linkages, thioether linkages, amide bonds, acid-labile linkages, and Schiff base linkages. Avidin/biotin linkers, in which avidin is covalently coupled to the BBB drug transport vector, may also be used. Avidin itself may be a drug transport vector.

Transcytosis, including receptor-mediated transport of compositions across the blood brain barrier, may also be suitable for the agents of the invention. Transferrin receptor-mediated delivery is disclosed in U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,672,683; 5,383,988; 5,527,527; 5,977,307; and 6,015,555. Transferrin-mediated transport is also known. P. M. Friden, et al., Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 278, 1491-98 (1996); H. J. Lee, J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 292, 1048-52 (2000). EGF receptor-mediated delivery is disclosed in Y. Deguchi, et al., Bioconjug. Chem. 10, 32-37 (1999), and transcytosis is described in A. Cerletti, et al., J. Drug Target. 8, 435-46 (2000). Insulin fragments have also been used as carriers for delivery across the blood brain barrier. M. Fukuta, et al., Pharm. Res. 11. 1681-88 (1994). Delivery of agents via a conjugate of neutral avidin and cationized human albumin has also been described. Y. S. Kang, et al., Pharm. Res. 1, 1257-64 (1994).

Other modifications in order to enhance penetration of the agents of the invention across the blood brain barrier may be accomplished using methods and derivatives known in the art. For example, U.S. Pat. No. 6,024,977 discloses covalent polar lipid conjugates for targeting to brain and central nervous system. U.S. Pat. No. 5,017,566 discloses cyclodextrin derivatives comprising inclusion complexes of lipoidal forms of dihydropyridine redox targeting moieties. U.S. Pat. No. 5,023,252 discloses the use of pharmaceutical compositions comprising a neurologically active drug and a compound for facilitating transport of the drug across the blood-brain barrier including a macrocyclic ester, diester, amide, diamide, amidine, diamidine, thioester, dithioester, thioamide, ketone or lactone. U.S. Pat. No. 5,024,998 discloses parenteral solutions of aqueous-insoluble drugs with cyclodextrin derivatives. U.S. Pat. No. 5,039,794 discloses the use of a metastatic tumor-derived egress factor for facilitating the transport of compounds across the blood-brain barrier. U.S. Pat. No. 5,112,863 discloses the use of N-acyl amino acid derivatives as antipsychotic drugs for delivery across the blood-brain barrier. U.S. Pat. No. 5,124,146 discloses a method for delivery of therapeutic agents across the blood-brain barrier at sites of increase permeability associated with brain lesions. U.S. Pat. No. 5,153,179 discloses acylated glycerol and derivatives for use in a medicament for improved penetration of cell membranes. U.S. Pat. No. 5,177,064 discloses the use of lipoidal phosphonate derivatives of nucleoside antiviral agents for delivery across the blood-brain barrier. U.S. Pat. No. 5,254,342 discloses receptor-mediated transcytosis of the blood-brain barrier using the transferrin receptor in combination with pharmaceutical compounds that enhance or accelerate this process. U.S. Pat. No. 5,258,402 discloses treatment of epilepsy with imidate derivatives of anticonvulsive sulfamate. U.S. Pat. No. 5,270,312 discloses substituted piperazines as central nervous system agents. U.S. Pat. No. 5,284,876 discloses fatty acid conjugates of dopamine drugs. U.S. Pat. No. 5,389,623 discloses the use of lipid dihydropyridine derivatives of anti-inflammatory steroids or steroid sex hormones for delivery across the blood-brain barrier. U.S. Pat. No. 5,405,834 discloses prodrug derivatives of thyrotropin releasing hormone. U.S. Pat. No. 5,413,996 discloses acyloxyalkyl phosphonate conjugates of neurologically-active drugs for anionic sequestration of such drugs in brain tissue. U.S. Pat. No. 5,434,137 discloses methods for the selective opening of abnormal brain tissue capillaries using bradykinin infused into the carotid artery. U.S. Pat. No. 5,442,043 discloses a peptide conjugate between a peptide having a biological activity and incapable of crossing the blood-brain barrier and a peptide which exhibits no biological activity and is capable of passing the blood-brain barrier by receptor-mediated endocytosis. U.S. Pat. No. 5,466,683 discloses water soluble analogues of an anticonvulsant for the treatment of epilepsy. U.S. Pat. No. 5,525,727 discloses compositions for differential uptake and retention in brain tissue comprising a conjugate of a narcotic analgesic and agonists and antagonists thereof with a lipid form of dihydropyridine that forms a redox salt upon uptake across the blood-brain barrier that prevents partitioning back to the systemic circulation.

Nitric oxide is a vasodilator of the peripheral vasculature in normal tissue of the body. Increasing generation of nitric oxide by nitric oxide synthase causes vasodilation without loss of blood pressure. The blood-pressure-independent increase in blood flow through brain tissue increases cerebral bioavailability of blood-born compositions. This increase in nitric oxide may be stimulated by administering L-arginine. As nitric oxide is increased, cerebral blood flow is consequently increased, and drugs in the blood stream are carried along with the increased flow into brain tissue. Therefore, L-arginine may be used in the pharmaceutical compositions of the invention to enhance delivery of agents to brain tissue after introducing a pharmaceutical composition into the blood stream of the subject substantially contemporaneously with a blood flow enhancing amount of L-arginine, as described in WO 00/56328.

Still further examples of modifications that enhance penetration of the blood brain barrier are described in International (PCT) Application Publication Number WO 85/02342, which discloses a drug composition comprising a glycerolipid or derivative thereof. PCT Publication Number WO 089/11299 discloses a chemical conjugate of an antibody with an enzyme which is delivered specifically to a brain lesion site for activating a separately-administered neurologically-active prodrug. PCT Publication Number WO 91/04014 discloses methods for delivering therapeutic and diagnostic agents across the blood-brain barrier by encapsulating the drugs in liposomes targeted to brain tissue using transport-specific receptor ligands or antibodies. PCT Publication Number WO 91/04745 discloses transport across the blood-brain barrier using cell adhesion molecules and fragments thereof to increase the permeability of tight junctions in vascular endothelium. PCT Publication Number WO 91/14438 discloses the use of a modified, chimeric monoclonal antibody for facilitating transport of substances across the blood-brain barrier. PCT Publication Number WO 94/01131 discloses lipidized proteins, including antibodies. PCT Publication Number WO 94/03424 discloses the use of amino acid derivatives as drug conjugates for facilitating transport across the blood-brain barrier. PCT Publication Number WO 94/06450 discloses conjugates of neurologically-active drugs with a dihydropyridine-type redox targeting moiety and comprising an amino acid linkage and an aliphatic residue. PCT Publication Number WO 94/02178 discloses antibody-targeted liposomes for delivery across the blood-brain barrier. PCT Publication Number WO 95/07092 discloses the use of drug-growth factor conjugates for delivering drugs across the blood-brain barrier. PCT Publication Number WO 96/00537 discloses polymeric microspheres as injectable drug-delivery vehicles for delivering bioactive agents to sites within the central nervous system. PCT Publication Number WO 96/04001 discloses omega-3-fatty acid conjugates of neurologically-active drugs for brain tissue delivery. PCT WO 96/22303 discloses fatty acid and glycerolipid conjugates of neurologically-active drugs for brain tissue delivery.

In general, it is well within the ordinary skill in the art to prepare an ester, amide or hydrazide derivative of an agent of the invention, for example, from the corresponding carboxylic acid and a suitable reagent. For instance, a carboxylic acid-containing compound, or a reactive equivalent thereof, may be reacted with a hydroxyl-containing compound, or a reactive equivalent thereof, so as to provide the corresponding ester. See, e.g., “Comprehensive Organic Transformations,” 2^(nd) Ed., by R. C. Larock, VCH Publishers John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. (199989); “March's Advanced Organic Chemistry,” 5^(th) Ed., by M. B. Smith and J. March, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. (2000).

Prodrugs

The present invention is also related to prodrugs of the agents of the Formulae disclosed herein. Prodrugs are agents which are converted in vivo to active forms (see, e.g., R. B. Silverman, 1992, “The Organic Chemistry of Drug Design and Drug Action,” Academic Press, Chp. 8). Prodrugs can be used to alter the biodistribution (e.g., to allow agents which would not typically enter the reactive site of the protease) or the pharmacokinetics for a particular agent. For example, a carboxylic acid group, can be esterified, e.g., with a methyl group or an ethyl group to yield an ester. When the ester is administered to a subject, the ester is cleaved, enzymatically or non-enzymatically, reductively, oxidatively, or hydrolytically, to reveal the anionic group. An anionic group can be esterified with moieties (e.g., acyloxymethyl esters) which are cleaved to reveal an intermediate agent which subsequently decomposes to yield the active agent. The prodrug moieties may be metabolized in vivo by esterases or by other mechanisms to carboxylic acids.

Examples of prodrugs and their uses are well known in the art (see, e.g., Berge, et al., “Pharmaceutical Salts”, J. Pharm. Sci. 66, 1-19 (1977)). The prodrugs can be prepared in situ during the final isolation and purification of the agents, or by separately reacting the purified agent in its free acid form with a suitable derivatizing agent. Carboxylic acids can be converted into esters via treatment with an alcohol in the presence of a catalyst.

Examples of cleavable carboxylic acid prodrug moieties include substituted and unsubstituted, branched or unbranched lower alkyl ester moieties, (e.g., ethyl esters, propyl esters, butyl esters, pentyl esters, cyclopentyl esters, hexyl esters, cyclohexyl esters), lower alkenyl esters, dilower alkyl-amino lower-alkyl esters (e.g., dimethylaminoethyl ester), acylamino lower alkyl esters, acyloxy lower alkyl esters (e.g., pivaloyloxymethyl ester), aryl esters (phenyl ester), aryl-lower alkyl esters (e.g., benzyl ester), substituted (e.g., with methyl, halo, or methoxy substituents) aryl and aryl-lower alkyl esters, amides, lower-alkyl amides, dilower alkyl amides, and hydroxy amides.

Pharmaceutically Acceptable Salts

Certain embodiments of the present agents can contain a basic functional group, such as amino or alkylamino, and are, thus, capable of forming pharmaceutically acceptable salts with pharmaceutically acceptable acids. The term “pharmaceutically acceptable salts” in this respect, refers to the relatively non-toxic, inorganic and organic acid addition salts of agents of the present invention. These salts can be prepared in situ during the final isolation and purification of the agents of the invention, or by separately reacting a purified agent of the invention in its free base form with a suitable organic or inorganic acid, and isolating the salt thus formed.

Representative salts include the hydrohalide (including hydrobromide and hydrochloride), sulfate, bisulfate, phosphate, nitrate, acetate, valerate, oleate, palmitate, stearate, laurate, benzoate, lactate, phosphate, tosylate, citrate, maleate, fumarate, succinate, tartrate, napthylate, mesylate, glucoheptonate, lactobionate, 2-hydroxyethanesulfonate, and laurylsulphonate salts and the like. See, e.g., Berge et al., “Pharmaceutical Salts”, J. Pharm. Sci. 66, 1-19 (1977).

In other cases, the agents of the present invention may contain one or more acidic functional groups and, thus, are capable of forming pharmaceutically acceptable salts with pharmaceutically acceptable bases. The term “pharmaceutically acceptable salts” in these instances refers to the relatively non-toxic, inorganic and organic base addition salts of agents of the present invention.

These salts can likewise be prepared in situ during the final isolation and purification of the agents, or by separately reacting the purified agent in its free acid form with a suitable base, such as the hydroxide, carbonate or bicarbonate of a pharmaceutically acceptable metal cation, with ammonia, or with a pharmaceutically acceptable organic primary, secondary or tertiary amine. Representative alkali or alkaline earth salts include the lithium, sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, and aluminum salts and the like. Representative organic amines useful for the formation of base addition salts include ethylamine, diethylamine, ethylenediamine, ethanolamine, diethanolamine, piperazine and the like.

“Pharmaceutically acceptable salts” also includes, for example, derivatives of agents modified by making acid or base salts thereof, as described further below and elsewhere in the present application. Examples of pharmaceutically acceptable salts include mineral or organic acid salts of basic residues such as amines; and alkali or organic salts of acidic residues such as carboxylic acids. Pharmaceutically acceptable salts include the conventional non-toxic salts or the quaternary ammonium salts of the parent agent formed, for example, from non-toxic inorganic or organic acids. Such conventional non-toxic salts include those derived from inorganic acids such as hydrochloric, hydrobromic, sulfuric, sulfamic, phosphoric, and nitric acid; and the salts prepared from organic acids such as acetic, propionic, succinic, glycolic, stearic, lactic, malic, tartaric, citric, ascorbic, palmoic, maleic, hydroxymaleic, phenylacetic, glutamic, benzoic, salicylic, sulfanilic, 2-acetoxybenzoic, fumaric, toluenesulfonic, methanesulfonic, ethane disulfonic, oxalic, and isethionic acid. Pharmaceutically acceptable salts may be synthesized from the parent agent which contains a basic or acidic moiety by conventional chemical methods. Generally, such salts may be prepared by reacting the free acid or base forms of these agents with a stoichiometric amount of the appropriate base or acid in water or in an organic solvent, or in a mixture of the two.

All acid, salt, base, and other ionic and non-ionic forms of the compounds described are included as compounds of the invention. For example, if a compound is shown as an acid herein, the salt forms of the compound are also included. Likewise, if a compound is shown as a salt, the acid and/or basic forms are also included.

Those skilled in the art will recognize, or be able to ascertain using no more than routine experimentation, numerous equivalents to the specific procedures, embodiments, claims, and examples described herein. Such equivalents are considered to be within the scope of this invention and covered by the claims appended hereto. The contents of all references, issued patents, and published patent applications cited throughout this application are hereby incorporated by reference. The invention is further illustrated by the following examples, which should not be construed as further limiting.

EXAMPLES

Binding and Antifibrillogenic Assays

The test compounds were synthesized and screened by mass spectrometry (“MS”) assays, except for selected compounds which were purchased from a commercial source. The MS assay gives data on the ability of compounds to bind to proteins, in this example, to β-amyloid and IAPP.

In the MS assay for Aβ40, samples were prepared as aqueous solutions (adding 20% ethanol if necessary to solubilize in water), 200 μM of a test compound and 20 μM of solubilized Aβ40, or 400 μM of a test compound and 40 μM of solubilized Aβ40. The pH value of each sample was adjusted to 7.4 (±0.2) by addition of 0.1% aqueous sodium hydroxide. The solutions were then analyzed by electrospray ionization mass spectrometry using a Waters ZQ 4000 mass spectrometer. Samples were introduced by direct infusion at a flow-rate of 25 μL/min within 2 hr. after sample preparation. The source temperature was kept at 70° C. and the cone voltage was 20 V for all the analysis. Data were processed using Masslynx 3.5 software. The MS assay gives data on the ability of compounds to bind to soluble Aβ, whereas the ThT, EM and CD assays give data on inhibition of fibrillogenesis. The results from the assay for binding to AP are summarized in Table 3. In Table 3, a blank box means that a value was not determined for that compound in that assay.

The assay for IAPP was conducted under the same conditions except that 200 μM of test compound and 20 μM of solubilized IAPP were employed. The key below describes the codes used in Table 3 to quantify the binding based on the intensity of the absorption. Key to Table 3 Aβ1-40 Code 400 μM 200 μM Strong Binding +++  90-100%  60-100% Moderate Binding ++ 70-89% 30-69% Weak Binding + 45-59% 20-44% Little/no detectable − 20-39% 20-39% binding IAPP 200 μM 100 μM (20% EtOH) (20% EtOH) Strong Binding +++ >75% >50% Moderate Binding ++ 40-75% 30-50% Weak Binding + 20-40% 15-30% Little/no detectable −  0-20%  0-15% binding

TABLE 3 Relative Binding Affinities of Compounds of the Invention MS binding ID IAPP Aβ1-40 B ++ + C + D + E +++ + F +++ + G ++ + H +++ + I +++ ++ J +++ + K ++ − L ++ + M ++ − N + − P ++ − Q − − AC ++ + AD + AE + AF +++ + AG ++ ++ AH ++ + AK +++ ++ AL +++ ++ AM ++ + AW ++ ++ AX + ++ AY ++ +++ AZ +++ ++ BA ++ ++ BB +++ +++ BC − + BV + +++ BW ++ +++ BX ++ +++ BY ++ +++ BZ +++ CC − ++ CD +++ ++ CE + +++ CG ++ +++ CH +++ +++ CI + +++ CJ ++ +++ CK +++ +++ CM + CV + +++ CY +++ +++ DB ++ +++ DC ++ +++ DD +++ DE + − DF +++ − DG − + DH + ++ DI − − DJ +++ − DK ++ +++ DL − + DM + ++ DN + ++ DO ++ +++ DP − + DQ − + DR + + DS + + DT + + DU +++ +++ DV +++ +++ DW +++ ++ DX +++ +++ DY ++ +++ DZ +++ +++ EA + ++ EB +++ +++ EC +++ ED ++ +++ EE ++ +++ EF − + EG +++ +++ EH +++ +++ EI − − EJ + ++ EK +++ +++ EL + ++ EN + + EO − + EP ++ + EQ − + ER ++ ES +++ +++ ET +++ EV +++ EW +++ EY +++ +++ EZ +++ +++ FA ++ +++ FH − − FJ +++ ++ FK +++ ++ FO − − FP +++ ++ FQ ++ + FR +++ ++ FS +++ +++ FT − − FU ++ ++ FV − − FW + − FX +++ +++ FY +++ +++ FZ ++ + GA + − GB +++ + GC − − GD +++ ++ GE ++ GF + GH ++ + GI ++ + GJ ++ ++ GK + + GL ++ ++ GM ++ − GN − − GO − − GP + − GQ − − GR − − GS ++ + GT + − GU ++ + GZ + − HA − − HB − − HC ++ + HD − − HE + − HF ++ − HG + + HI ++ HJ ++ − HK − − Effects of Short Term Treatment in Adult Transgenic CRND8 Mice Overexpressing βAPP

Transgenic mice, TgCRND8, expressing the human amyloid precursor protein (hAPP) develop a pathology resembling Alzheimer's disease. In particular, high levels of Aβ40 and Aβ42 have been documented in the plasma and the brain of these animals at 8-9 weeks of age, followed by early accumulation of amyloid plaques similar to the senile plaques observed in AD patients. These animals also display progressive cognitive deficits that parallel the appearance of degenerative changes. See, e.g., (Chishti, et al., J. Biol. Chem. 276, 21562-70 (2001).

The short term therapeutic effect of 19 compounds of the invention was studied. These compounds were administered over a 14 or 28 day period at the end of which the levels of Aβ peptides in the plasma and brain of TgCRND8 animals were determined.

Methods

Male and female transgenic mice from the 3^(rd) and 4^(th) B6C3F1 generations were used in this example and given daily subcutaneous or oral administrations of one of a series of compounds for 14 or 28 days. The following abbreviations are used to designate these animals from the 3^(rd) and 4th generation backcross in the present protocol: TgCRND8-2.B6C3F1(N₃); TgCRND8-2.B6C3F1(N₄).

Baseline animals (Group 1) consisted of naive TgCRND8-2. B6C3F1 (N₃) at 11±1 weeks of age. These mice were used to determine the Aβ levels in the plasma and brain of naive transgenic animals at the initiation of treatment.

Starting at 11 weeks of age (±1 week) animals received daily administration of their respective treatment for a period of 14 or 28 days (groups 2-21), at a dose of 250 mg/kg at 10 ml/kg or of vehicle only (water; group 2) or 1% methyl cellulose only (group 21). The route of administration was subcutaneous for water-soluble compounds and oral for compounds solubilized in methylcellulose 1% (MC 1%). At the end of the treatment periods, plasma and perfused brains were collected for quantification of Aβ levels. TABLE 4 Test System Species: Mouse Strain: TgCRND8-2.B6C3F1(N₃) & (N₄) Genotype: hAPP +/− Gender: Male and Female Age at Day 1: 11 ± 1 weeks Body Weight at 10 to 30 g Day 1: Number of Groups: 21 Number of Baseline: 8 Animals/ Group at Day 1: Vehicle and 12-15 Treated: Suppliers: TgCRND8-2 founders were obtained from the Centre for Research in Neurodegenerative Diseases, University of Toronto. The inbred B6C3F1 were obtained from Charles River (Quebec, Canada).

The mice used in this study were derived from a breeding colony at Institut Armand Frappier, and were well-acclimated to the animal facility environment prior to initiation of the study. Animals were assigned, according to age and gender, into the following experimental groups: TABLE 5 Groups of Mice Daily Duration of Dose Treatment Group No. Treatment (mg/kg) (days) 1 Baseline NA NA 2 Water NA 14 & 28 4 BY 250 14 & 28 6 CV 250 14 & 28 12 CY NA 14 & 28 15 BW 250 14 & 28 16 BZ 250 14 & 28 18 BX 250 14 & 28 20 DC 250 14 & 28 21 Methylcellulose 1% 100 14 & 28 Animal Health Monitoring

All animals were examined daily for signs of ill health when handled in the morning for their daily treatment and twice a day for mortality checks (once daily during weekends and holidays). Detailed examinations were performed on the treatment initiation, weekly during the study, and once before terminal procedures. More frequent observations were undertaken when considered appropriate. Death and all individual clinical signs were individually recorded. Individual body weights were recorded at randomization, once weekly during the study, and once before terminal procedures.

Sample Collection

At 11±1 weeks of age for the Baseline group, and at the end of the treatment period (14 or 28 days) for Groups 2 to 21, at 24 hours after the last compound administration animals were sacrificed and samples collected. An approximate blood volume of 500 μl was collected from the orbital sinus and kept on ice until centrifugation at 4° C. at a minimum speed of 3,000 rpm for 10 minutes. Plasma samples were immediately frozen and stored at −80° C. pending analysis. The brains were removed, frozen, and stored at −80° C. awaiting analysis.

Measurements of Aβ Levels

Brains were weighted frozen and homogenized with 4 volumes of ice cold 50 mM Tris-Cl pH 8.0 buffer with protease inhibitor cocktail (4 mL of buffer for 1 g of wet brain). Samples were spun at 15000 g for 20 minutes and the supernatants were transferred to fresh tubes. One hundred fifty (150) μl from each supernatant were mixed with 250 μl of 8M guanidine-HCLJ50 mM Tris-HCL pH 8.0 (ratio of 0.6 vol supernatant: 1 vol 8M guanidium/Tris-HCL 50 mM pH8.0) and 400 μL 5 M guanidium/Tris-HCL 50 mM pH8.0 were added. The tubes were vortexed for 30 seconds and frozen at −80° C. In parallel, pellets were treated with 7 volumes of 5 M guanidine-HClJ50 mM Tris-HCL pH 8.0 (7 mL of guanidine for 1 g of wet brain), vortexed for 30 seconds and frozen at −80° C. Samples were thawed at room temperature, sonicated at 80° C. for 15 minutes and frozen again. This cycle was repeated 3 times to ensure homogeneity and samples were returned to −80° C. pending analysis.

Aβ levels were evaluated in plasma and brain samples by ELISA using Human Aβ40 and Aβ42 Fluorometric ELISA kits from Biosource (Cat. No. 89-344 and 89-348) according to manufacturer's recommended procedures. In short, samples were thawed at room temperature, sonicated for 5 minutes at 80° C. (sonication for brain homogenates; no sonication for plasma samples) and kept on ice. Aβ peptides were captured using 100 μl of the diluted samples to the plate and incubated without shaking at 4° C. overnight. The samples were aspirated and the wells were rinsed 4 times with wash buffer obtained from the Biosource ELISA kit. The anti-Aβ40 or anti-Aβ42 rabbit polyclonal antiserum (specific for the Aβ40 or Aβ42 peptide) was added (100 μl) and the plate was incubated at room temperature for 2 hours with shaking. The wells were aspirated and washed 4 times before adding 100 μl of the alkaline phosphatase labeled anti-rabbit antibody and incubating at room temperature for 2 hours with shaking. The plates were then rinsed 5 times and the fluorescent substrate (100 μl) was added to the plate. The plate was incubated for 35 minutes at room temperature and the plate was read using a titer plate reader at an excitation wavelength of 460 nm and emission at 560 nm.

Compounds were scored based on their ability to modulate levels of Aβ peptides in the plasma and the cerebral soluble/insoluble levels in the brain. Levels of Aβ observed in the plasma and brain of treated animals were normalized using values from vehicle-treated (water) or methylcellulose-treated control groups and ranked according to the strength of the pharmacological effect. Results are shown in Tables 3 to 11. Increases in the levels of AP peptides are indicated using “+” symbols, while decreases in the levels of Aβ peptides are indicated using “−” symbols. The strongest effects are recorded as “+++” or “−−−” while the weakest are shown as “+” or “−”.

Specifically, increases in the levels of AP (relative to untreated control) of 20 to 39% are scored as “+”; increases of 40 to 69% are scored as “++”; and increases of 70% or higher are scored as “+++”. Decreases in the levels of AP of 5 to 19% are scored as “−”; decreases of 20 to 38% are scored as “−−”; and decreases of 39% or more are scored as “−−−”.

The data are presented in Tables 6-11. Treatment with these compounds after 14 and/or 28 days resulted in a significant change in the cerebral levels of Aβ40 and/or Aβ42 (Tables 8-11). Furthermore, treatment with these compounds, for instance, Compound BX (3-(t-butyl)amino-1-propanesulfonic acid), resulted after 14 and 28 days (Tables 6-7) in a significant increase in the levels of AS peptides in the plasma. This suggests that some of these compounds may act by a peripheral sink effect, sequestering Aβ peptides in the plasma and thereby facilitating their clearance from the CNS as previously suggested for treatment by passive immunization using anti-Aβ monoclonal antibody m266 (DeMattos et al., Science 295(5563):2264-7).

The tables show levels of Aβ peptides in the plasma and brain of TgCRND8 mice treated for 14 and 28 days with compounds of the invention.

Tables 6A and 6C show the data from Day 14 and Day 28 for the Plasma Vehicle group, respectively. Tables 6B and 7 show the data for the Plasma Methylcellulose group on Days 14 and 28, respectively. Tables 8 and 10 show the data on Days 14 and 28 for the Brain homogenate vehicle group, respectively. Tables 9 and 11 show the data for brain homogenate for the Methylcellulose group on Days 14 and 28, respectively. TABLE 6A Plasma Vehicle Group, Day 14 Treatment Aβ40 Change Aβ42 Change BY + + CV + ++ DC ++ ++ BX +++ ++

TABLE 6B Plasma Methylcellulose Group, Day 14 Treatment Aβ40 Change Aβ42 Change BZ + BW CY

TABLE 6C Plasma Vehicle Group, Day 28 Treatment Aβ40 Change Aβ42 Change BY CV ++ ++ DC ++ BX +++

TABLE 7 Plasma Methylcellulose Group, Day 28 Treatment Aβ40 Change Aβ42 Change BZ ++ ++ BW + CY +

TABLE 8 Brain Homogenate Vehicle Group, Day 14 Aβ40 Change Aβ42 Change Treatment Soluble Insoluble Soluble Insoluble BY +++ +++ +++ CV** − DC −− + −− BX − −−− −− −−− **The effect of this compound in the brain has only been tested on its ability to modulate the total levels of Aβ40 and Aβ42 peptides rather than measuring soluble and insoluble levels independently.

TABLE 9 Brain Homogenate Methylcellulose Group, Day 14 Aβ40 Change Aβ42 Change Treatment Soluble Insoluble Soluble Insoluble BZ −−− −− BW −−− −− −−− CY − +++ ++

TABLE 10 Brain Homogenate Vehicle Group, Day 28 Aβ40 Change Aβ42 Change Treatment Soluble Insoluble Soluble Insoluble BY + +++ +++ CV** ++ +++ DC − + ++ +++ BX −−− −−− −− − **The effect of this compound in the brain has only been tested on its ability to modulate the total levels of Aβ40 and 42 peptides rather than measuring soluble and insoluble levels independently.

TABLE 11 Brain Homogenate Methylcellulose Group, Day 28 Aβ40 Change Aβ42 Change Treatment Soluble Insoluble Soluble Insoluble BZ −− −− −− BW − − − −− CY ++ +++ +++ + Effects of Long Term Treatment in Adult Transzenic CRND8 Mice Overexpressing βAPP

Transgenic mice, TgCRND8, as those used in the short term treatment, overexpress a human APP gene with the Swedish and Indiana mutations leading to the production of high levels of the amyloid peptides and to the development of an early-onset, aggressive development of brain amyloidosis. The high levels of Aβ peptides and the relative overabundance of Aβ42 compared to Aβ40 are believed to be associated with the severe and early degenerative pathology observed. The pattern of amyloid deposition, presence of dystrophic neuritis, and cognitive deficit has been well documented in this transgenic mouse line. The levels of Aβ peptides in the brain of these mice increase dramatically as the animals age. While the total amyloid peptide levels increase from ˜1.6×10⁵ pg/g of brain to ˜3.8×10⁶ between 9 and 17 weeks of age.

While the early deposition of amyloid in this model allows the rapid testing of compounds in a relatively short time frame, the aggressivity of this model and the high levels of Aβ peptides renders therapeutic assessment in the longer term a more difficult task.

The long-term therapeutic effects of compounds of the present invention on cerebral amyloid deposition and β-amyloid (Aβ) levels in the plasma and in the brains of transgenic mice, TgCRND8, expressing the human amyloid precursor protein (hAPP) was studied. These compounds were administered over an 8 or 16 week period at the end of which the levels of Aβ peptides in the plasma and brain of TgCRND8 animals were determined. The goal of this study was to evaluate the efficacy of the compounds at modulating the progression of the amyloidogenic process in the brain and in the plasma of a transgenic mouse model of Alzheimer's disease (AD)

Methods

The mice used in the study consisted of animals bearing one copy of the hAPP gene (+/−) from the 2^(nd) and 3^(rd) generation progenies (N₂ and N₃) derived from backcrosses from TgCRND8.FVB(N₂)AJ(N₃) with B6AF1/J hybrid animals.

-   -   N₁=TgCRND8.FVB(N₂)AJ(N₃)×B6AF1/J     -   N₂=TgCRND8.FVB(N₂)AJ(N₃).B6AF1/J(N₁)×B6AF1/J     -   N₃=TgCRND8.FVB(N₂)AJ(N₃).B6AF1/J(N₂)×B6AF1/J

The following abbreviations are used to designate these animals in the present study: TgCRND8.B6AF1/J(N₂); TgCRND8.B6AF1/J(N₃). Male and female transgenic mice were given daily subcutaneous (compound BX) or oral (compounds BW and BZ) administrations of the appropriate compounds for 8 or 16 weeks.

Baseline animals consisted of 9+1 week old naive TgCRND8.B6AF1/J animals from the 2^(nd) and 3^(rd) generations. These mice were used to determine the extent of cerebral amyloid deposits and Aβ levels in the plasma and brain of naive transgenic animals at the initiation of treatment.

Starting at 9 weeks of age (±1 week) animals received daily administration of their respective treatment for a period of 8 or 16 weeks, at a dose of 30 or 100 mg/kg at 10 ml/kg. The route of administration was subcutaneous for water-soluble compounds (Compound BX) and oral for compounds solubilized in methylcellulose 1% (MC 1%) (Compounds BW and BZ). At the end of the treatment periods, plasma and perfused brains were collected for quantification of Aβ levels.

Animal health was monitored, samples were collected and Aβ levels were measured as described above in the short term treatment study. Compounds were scored based on their ability to modulate levels of Aβ peptides in the plasma and the cerebral soluble/insoluble levels in the brain. Levels of Aβ observed in the plasma and brain of treated animals were compared to that of vehicle-treated (water) or methylcellulose-treated control groups and ranked according to the strength of the pharmacological effect. Results are shown in Table 12. Increases in the levels of Aβ peptides are indicated using “+” symbols, while decreases in the levels of Aβ peptides are indicated using “−” symbols. The strongest effects are recorded as “+++” or “−−−” while the weakest are shown as “+” or “−”.

Specifically, increases in the levels of Aβ (relative to untreated control) of 5 to 14% are scored as “+”; increases of 15 to 29% are scored as “++”; and increases of 30% or higher are scored as “+++”. Decreases in the levels of Aβ of 5 to 14% are scored as “−”; decreases of 15 to 29% are scored as “−−”; and decreases of 30% or more are scored as “−−−”. Additionally, changes of 4% or less in either direction are scored as “0”.

Table 12 shows levels of Aβ peptides in the plasma and brain of TgCRND8 mice treated for 8 and 16 weeks with compounds of the invention. Treatment with these compounds after 8 and/or 16 weeks in many cases resulted in a change in the levels of Aβ₄₀ and/or Aβ₄₂ in the plasma and/or brain. For example, administration of compound BX generally resulted in a dramatic decrease in the amount of Ad in the brain at both 8 and 16 weeks. Compound BW also resulted in a dramatic decrease in brain and plasma levels of Aβ at 8 weeks and plasma levels at 16 weeks. Additionally, preliminary histochemical experiments using ThioS staining of brain sections indicated that both the number of plaques and the area occupied by the plaques were decreased in mice treated with 30 mg/kg of compound BX. TABLE 12 Effects of Compounds BX, BW and BZ on levels of Aβ in plasma and brain Brain Dose Timepoint Plasma Abeta40 Abeta42 Compound (mg/kg) (weeks) Abeta40 Abeta42 soluble insoluble soluble insoluble BX 30  8 wks + + −−− −−− −−− −− BX 100  8 wks ++ +++ + ++ + 0 BX 30 16 wks − − −− −−− 0 − BX 100 16 wks − 0 − −−− 0 −− BW 30  8 wks −−− −−− − −− −− 0 BW 100  8 wks − − −− −−− −− −−− BW 30 16 wks −− −− + ++ − + BW 100 16 wks − − ++ + + ++ BZ 30  8 wks 0 0 0 −− 0 −−− BZ 100  8 wks ++ +++ ++ 0 0 − BZ 30 16 wks 0 + 0 + + 0 BZ 100 16 wks ++ ++ −− 0 − +

EXAMPLE 11 Evaluation of Compounds Binding to NAC Peptide by Mass Spectrometry

Recent findings have demonstrated that a high percentage of Alzheimer Disease (AD) patients also form Lewy bodies, most abundantly in the amygdala (Hamilton. 2000. Brain Pathol, 10:378; Mukaetova-Ladinska, et al. 2000. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 59:408). Interestingly, the highly hydrophobic non-amyloid component (NAC) region of α-synuclein has also been described as the second most abundant component of amyloid plaques in the brain of AD patients, after. Alpha-synuclein has been shown to form fibrils in vitro. Futhermore it binds to Aβ and promotes its aggregation (Yoshimoto, et al. 1995. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 92:9141). It was in fact originally identified as the precursor of the non-amyloid beta (Aβ) component (NAD) of AD plaques (Ueda, et al. 1993. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 90:11282; Iwai. 2000. Biochem Biophys Acta 1502:95; Masliah, et al. 1996. Am J Pathol 148:201). NAC is a 35 amino acid long peptide with highly hydrophobic stretches which can self-aggregate and form fibrils in vitro. Moreover, these fibrils can efficiently seed the formation of Aβ fibrils in vitro (Han, et al. 1995. Chem Biol. 2: 163-169; Iwai, et al. 1995. Biochemistry 34:10139). It is in fact through its NAC domain that alpha-synuclein retains its fibrillogenic properties. Modulating the properties of NAC or targeting NAC with the compounds of the invention could therefore be a valid therapeutic avenue to inhibit the formation of protein aggregates and inclusions associated with alpha-synucleopathies, as well as the formation of aggregates between the beta-amyloid peptide and NAC of alpha-synuclein.

The ability of the compounds of the present invention to bind to NAC peptide in aqueous solution was evaluated. The binding ability correlates to the intensities of the peptide-compound complex peaks observed by the Electrospray Mass Spectrum. Millipore distilled deionized water was used to prepare all aqueous solutions. For pH determination a Beckman (D36 pH meter fitted with a Corning Semi-Micro Combination pH Electrode was employed.

NAC (MW 3260.6 Da) at 20CM was first analyzed at pH 7.40 and the usual sodium clusters was observed at +2, +3 and +4 at m/z 1335.5, 1116.7 and 843.4 respectively. The optimal cone voltage was determined to be 20V.

Mass spectrometry—Mass spectrometric analysis was performed using a Waters ZQ 4000 mass spectrometer equipped with a Waters 2795 sample manager. MassLynx 4.0 (earlier by MassLynx 3.5) was used for data processing and analysis. Test compounds were mixed with disaggregated peptides in aqueous media (6.6% EtOH) at a 5:1 ratio (20 μM NAC: 100 μM of test compound or 40 μM NAC: 200 μM of test compound). The pH of the mixture was adjusted to 7.4 (+0.2) using 0.1% NaOH (3-5 EL). Periodically, NAC peptide solution at 20 μM or 40 μM was also prepared in the same fashion and run as control. The spectra were obtained by introducing the solutions to the electrospray source by direct infusion using a syringe pump at a flow rate of 25 μl/min, and scanning from 100 to 2100 Da in the positive mode. The scan time was 0.9 sec per scan with an inter-scan delay of 0.1 sec and the run time was 5 min for each sample. All the mass spectra were sum of 300 scans. The desolvation and source temperature was 70° C. and the cone and capillary voltage were maintained at 20 V and 3.2 kV respectively.

The total area under the peaks for the bound NAC-compound complex divided by total area under the peaks for unbound NAC was determined for each compound tested. The results are summarized in Table 13 below TABLE 13 NAC Peptide Binding Data Binding Structure Strength* NaO₃SCH₂(CH₂)₂CH₂SO₃Na − NaO₃SOCH₂CH₂CH₂OSO₃Na − NH₂CH₂CH₂OSO₃H − H₂NCH₂CH₂CH₂OSO₃Na + + H₂NCH₂CH₂SO₃H +

+ +

+ +

+

+ + +

*+ +<+ = Strong; when the total binding is 120% and higher + + = Moderate; when the total binding is between 120% and 70% + = Weak; when the total binding is between 70% and 30% − = None; when the total binding is between 30% and 0%

The present invention also relates to novel compounds and the synthesis thereof. Accordingly, the following examples are presented to illustrate how some of those compounds may be prepared.

Synthesis of Compounds of the Invention

Preparation of 3-isopropylamino-1-propanesulfonic acid (Compound CG)

Isopropylamine (2.5 mL, 29 mmol) was added to a solution of 1,3-propane sultone (3.05 g, 25 mmol) in a mixture of dichloromethane/ether (40 mL, 1:1). The mixture was heated at reflux for 3 hours. The reaction mixture was cooled to room temperature and hexane (10 mL) was added. The solid material was collected by filtration, rinsed with ether (10 mL), and dried in vacuo. Compound CG was obtained as a fine white powder (2.98 g, 65.6% yield). m.p. 240-43-C. ¹H NMR (500 MHz, D₂O) δ 1.06 (d, J=6.3 Hz, 6H), 1.86 (qt, J=7.6 Hz, 2H), 2.76 (t, J=7.6 Hz, 2H), 3.14 (t, J=7.8 Hz, 2H), 3.13-3.21 (m, J=6.6 Hz, 1H). ¹³C NMR (125 MHz, D₂O) δ 18.2, 21.5, 25.8, 43.4, 47.9, 50.8. Preparation of 3-cyclopropylamino-1-propanesulfonic acid (Compound CI)

Cyclopropylamine (3.7 mL, 52 mmol) was added to a solution of 1,3-propane sultone (6.9 g, 55.3 mmol) in THF (60 mL). The mixture was heated with an oil-bath at 42° C. for 2 hours. Stirring was difficult and part of the solid formed a crust above the stirred mixture. The mixture was heated at reflux for 1 hour, cooled to room temperature. The solid material was collected by filtration, dried in a vacuum oven for 2 hours at 60° C. (4.95 g). The solid was recrystallized in methanol/water (35 mL/5 mL, v/v). The mixture was cooled in a fridge then the solid was collected by filtration, rinsed with methanol (15 mL), air-dried for 15 minutes, and further dried in a vacuum oven at 60° C. overnight. Compound CI was obtained as long, fine, white needles (3.74 g, 40% yield). m.p. 234-236° C. ¹H NMR (500 MHz, D₂O) δ 0.62-0.71 (m, 4H), 1.92 (qt, J=7.6 Hz, 2H), 2.51-2.55 (m, J=3.7 Hz, 1H), 2.78 (d, J=7.3 Hz, 2H), 3.09 (t, J=7.8 Hz, 2H). ¹³C NMR (125 MHz, D₂O) δ 3.0, 21.2, 30.0, 46.8, 47.9. FT-IR (KBr) v_(max) 3051, 1570, 1465, 1039 Preparation of 3-cyclopentylamino-1-propanesulfonic acid (Compound CJ)

Cyclopentylamine (3.95 mL, 40 mmol) was added to a solution of 1,3-propane sultone (5.5 g, 45 mmol) in THF (80 mL). The mixture was heated at reflux with an oil-bath for 4 hours. Stirring was difficult, some acetone and ethanol were added to restore stirring. The mixture was cooled to room temperature. The solid was collected by filtration, dried in a vacuum oven for 1 hour at 60° C. (5.47 g). The solid material was dissolved in methanol/water (35 mL/2.5 mL, v/v) at reflux. The mixture was cooled slowly to room temperature overnight, and further cooled in a fridge. The product was collected by filtration, rinsed with methanol (15 mL), air-dried for 15 minutes, and further dried in a vacuum oven at 60° C. overnight. The product, Compound CJ, was obtained as long fine white needles (4.79 g). A second crop was obtained from the combined crude and first recrystallization mother liquor (0.84 g). Both crops were pure and were combined, total 5.63 g, 68% yield. m.p. 280-82° C. ¹H NMR (500 MHz, D₂O) δ 1.34-1.43 (m, 4H), 1.46-1.54 (m, 2H), 1.82-1.90 (m, 4H), 2.76 (7, J=7.6 Hz, 2H), 2.95 (t, J=7.8 Hz, 2H), 3.35 (qt, J=7.2 Hz, 1H). ¹³C NMR (125 MHz, D₂O) δ 21.5, 23.6, 29.3, 45.1, 47.9, 59.5. FT-IR (KBr) v_(max) 3558, 3501, 2972, 1647, 1587, 1466 Preparation of 3-cycloheptylamino-1-propanesulfonic acid (Compound CK)

Cycloheptylamine (3.9 mL, 30 mmol) was added to a solution of 1,3-propane sultone (4.1 g, 33 mmol) in THF (65 mL). The mixture was heated at reflux for 5 hours with a heating mantle. The mixture was cooled to room temperature and the solid was collected by filtration, and then dried in a vacuum oven for 1 hour at 60° C. (6.21 g). The solid material was dissolved in methanol/water (30 mL/3 mL, v/v). The solution was cooled slowly to room temperature, and further cooled with an ice-bath. The solid product was collected by filtration, rinsed with methanol, air-dried for 15 minutes, and further dried in a vacuum oven at 60° C. Compound CK was obtained as small white flakes (5.08 g, 72% yield). m.p. 341-43° C. ¹H NMR (500 MHz, D₂O) δ 1.21-1.42 (m, 8H), 1.45-1.51 (m, 2H), 1.79-1.89 (m, 4H), 2.76 (7, J=7.3 Hz, 2H), 2.96 (t, J=7.8 Hz, 2H), 3.35 (m, J=4.6 Hz, 1H). ¹³C NMR (125 MHz, D₂O) δ 21.6, 23.3, 27.3, 30.5, 43.6, 48.0, 59.6. FT-IR (KBr) v_(max) 2924, 1615, 1464, 1243. Preparation of 3-benzyloxycarbonylamino-2-hydroxy-1-propanesulfonic acid, Sodium Salt (Compound AC)

3-Amino-2-hydroxy-1-propanesulfonic acid (15.51 g, 100 mmol) was dissolved in water (150 mL) with the help of 1 equivalent of NaOH (4.08 g). A solution of CBZ-OSuc (27.4 g, 110 mmol) in MeCN (300 mL) was added. After stirring for 4 hours at room temperature, the solvent was evaporated under reduced pressure. The wet cake (one equivalent in weight of water) was then suspended in acetone (400 mL) and heated under reflux for 20 minutes. The mixture was cooled to room temperature and the solid was collected by filtration, washed with acetone and dried overnight in then vacuum oven at 40° C. Compound AC was obtained as a white fine solid (28.85 g, 87.6 mmol, 88%). The ¹H and ¹³C NMR were consistent with the structure. Preparation of 4-benzyloxycarbonylamino-1-butanesulfonic acid, Sodium Salt (Compound AD)

4-Amino-1-butanesulfonic acid sodium salt (0.516 g, 2.95 mmol. was dissolved in water for a final concentration of 0.5 M (slightly yellow solution). A solution of CBZ-OSuc in CH₃CN (2 M, 1.55 mL, 3.1 mmol, 1.05 eq.) was added. The reagent precipitated. A mixture of 1,4-dioxane and ethanol was added until almost all of the solid was dissolved. After 3.75 h, the solvent was evaporated under reduced pressure. The solid was dried in vacuo over the weekends. The solid was then suspended in acetone and heated under reflux for 30 minutes. The mixture was cooled to room temperature and the solid was collected by filtration, washed with acetone and dried overnight in vacuo. Compound AD was obtained as a white fine solid (0.7610 g, 2.32 mmol, 78%). The ¹H NMR was consistent with the structure. Preparation of 3-benzyloxycarbonylamino-1-propanesulfonic acid Sodium Salt (Compound AE)

3-Amino-1-propanesulfonic acid sodium salt (1.09 g, 6.76 mmol) was dissolved in water for a final concentration of 0.5 M. A solution of CBZ-OSuc in CH₃CN (2 M, 3.55 mL, 7.1 mmol, 1.05 eq.) was added. The reagent precipitated. A mixture of 1,4-dioxane and ethanol was added until almost all the solid was dissolved. After 3.75 hours, the solvent was evaporated under reduced pressure. The solid was dried in vacuo over the weekends. The solid was then suspended in acetone and heated under reflux for 30 minutes. The mixture was cooled to room temperature and the solid was collected by filtration, washed with acetone and dried overnight in vacuo. Compound AE was obtained as a white fine solid (1.58 g, 5.06 mmol, 75%). The ¹H NMR was consistent with the structure. 90% pure (10% mol of homotaurine). Preparation of L-(N-Boc)-Phe-L-Phe-homotaurine isobutyl ester

Component 1: L-(N-Boc)-Phe-L-Phe

A solution of (Boc)₂O (800 mg, 3.5 mmol) in 1,4-dioxane (5 mL) was added to a cold (0° C.) solution of di-L-Phe-Phe (1 g, 3.20 mmol) in 1,4-dioxane (6 mL) and 1N NaOH (3.3 mL). The mixture was stirred at 0-5° C. for 2 hours. Another portion of (BOC)₂O (100 mg) was added and the mixture was stirred for an additional 60 minutes at 0-5° C. then at room temperature for 30 minutes. The mixture was then evaporated to dryness. The solid was taken in a mixture of water/EtOAc and pH was adjusted to 2 with 2N HCl. The aqueous layer was extracted 3 times with EtOAc. The combined organic layers were dried with brine and the solvent was evaporated. Some solid was insoluble in a mixture of EtOAc/CHCl₃: it was removed by filtration. The desired N-Boc-L-Phe-L-Phe I was obtained as a white foamy solid (913.7 mg, 2.215 mmol, 71% yield). Component 2: 3-aminol-propanesulfonic acid isobutyl ester

Step 1: 3-azido-1-propanesulfonic acid, Sodium Salt (5)

A solution of 1,3-propane sultone 4 (6.12 g, 49.1 mmol) in acetone (30 mL) was added to a mixture of sodium azide (3.22 g, 49.1 mmol) in water/acetone (70 mL, 20 to 50). The clear solution was stirred at room temperature. The reaction was completed within 1 hour. The solvent was removed by evaporation under reduced pressure. The solid obtained was rinsed with hot ether (50 mL) and then with ether at room temperature (150 ml). The solid was then dried in the vacuum oven at 400C for overnight. The title compound 5 was obtained as a white solid (8.69 g, 46.4 mmol, 95% yield).

Step 2: 3-azido-1-propanesulfonyl chloride

3-Azidopropanesulfonic acid, sodium salt 5 (1.87 g, 10.0 mmol) was suspended in dry benzene (20 mL), and PCl₅ (2.3 g, 10.5 mmol) was added to the suspension. The mixture was stirred at room temperature for 30 minutes, then at gentle reflux for about 1 hour. The benzene and P(O)C13 were removed by evaporation under reduced pressure. Benzene was added to the crude mixture and the solvent was removed again under reduced pressure. The residue was dried in vacuo. The dried residue was dissolved in dichloromethane (anhydrous, 15 mL) and cooled at −10° C. using an ice/acetone bath.

Step 3: 3-azido-1-propanesulfonic acid, isobutyl ester

A solution of isobutanol (1.00 mL, 10.8 mmol) and 2,6-lutidine (1.3 mL, 11.2 mmol) in dichloromethane (10 mL) was added slowly to the cold sulfonyl chloride solution. The mixture was stirred at −10° C. for 5 minutes then at room temperature for 2 hours. The reaction was quenched with water and dichloromethane was added to extract the product. The organic layer was washed once with water, aqueous saturated NaHCO₃, brine, and then dried over magnesium sulfate. The solvent was removed by evaporation under reduced pressure and the residue was dried in vacuo. The remaining 2,6-lutidine hydrochloride was removed by washing the residue with ether. The resulting oil (1.78 g) was then applied on flash column (silica gel, EtOAc in Hexanes from 15% to 20%) to give afford the desired ester as an oil (790 mg, 35%).

Step 4: 3-amino-1-propanesulfonic acid isobutyl ester

A solution of isobutyl 3-azidopropanesulfonate (1.13 g, 5.11 mmol) in isobutanol (10 mL) was added under H₂, via a cannula, to a suspension of Pd/C (10%, 200 mg) in isobutanol (4 mL) which had been saturated with H₂. The mixture was then stirred under H₂ (40 psi) at room temperature overnight. The solid was then removed by filtration. The filtrate was evaporated to dryness. And the residue was dried in vacuo. The title compound 2, homotaurine isobutyl ester, was obtained as brown oil (808.7 mg, 81%).

Reaction of Component 1 with Component 2

HOBT (340 mg, 2.215 mmol) was added to a cold (0-5° C.) solution of N-Boc-L-Phe-L-Phe 1 (913.7 mg, 2.215 mmol) and homotaurine isobutyl ester 2 (423 mg, 2,21 mmol) in dichloromethane (anhydrous, 30 mL). After 5 minutes, a solution of 1-cyclohexyl-3-(2-morpholinoethyl)carbodiimide metho-p-toluenesulfonate (982 mg, 2.215 mmol) in dichloromethane (10 mL) was added dropwise. The solution was stirred overnight at room temperature. The mixture was diluted with dichloromethane (50 mL) and the organic layer was washed sequentially with 1N NaHSO₄, aqueous saturated NaHCO₃, and brine, and dried over sodium sulfate. The solvent was removed by evaporation under reduced pressure. Three compounds in the mixture were shown on TLC. Since the impurities were less soluble in methanol, repeated treatment with methanol followed by filtration removed most of the impurities. Column chromatography on silica gel (2% MeOH in CHCl₃) afforded the tripeptide 3 as amber glassy solid (156.1 mg, 12%). Preparation of L-Phe-L-Phe-homotaurine isobutyl ester

Concentrated HCl (0.7 mL) was added to a cold (0° C.) solution of N-Boc-L-Phe-L-Phe-homotaurine isobutyl ester (202 mg, 0.343 mmol) in methanol. The mixture was stirred at room temperature for 2 hours and then left standing in the refrigerator overnight. The solvent was removed under reduced pressure and the residual solid was dried in vacuo to afford the L-Phe-L-Phe-homotaurine isobutyl ester as a white solid (171.8 mg, 95%). Preparation of L-PhL-L-Phe-homotaurine (Compound X)

A solution of N-BOC-L-phenylalanine-N-hydroxusuccinimide ester (400 mg, 1.1 mmol) in a mixture of ethanol (6 mL) and 1,4-dioxane (4 mL) was added to a solution of L-Phe-Homotaurine (273 mg, 1.0 mmol) in 1N NaOH (1.05 mL), water (3 mL) and ethanol (4 mL). The mixture was stirred at room temperature overnight. The solvent was removed under reduced pressure and the solid (601.9 mg) was suspended in a mixture of acetone (8 mL) and isopropanol (0.2 mL) and stirred overnight at room temperature. The mixture was heated under refluxed for 30 minutes and then was cooled to room temperature. The white solid was collected by filtration, washed with ether, then dried in the vacuum oven for 45 minutes. The resulting solid (423.1 mg) was dissolved in a mixture of water/tert-butanol (7:3, 5 mL) and treated with Amberlite IR-120 plus (washed, 15 g dry weight) for 2 minutes at room temperature. The resin was removed by filtration and washed 3 times with the mixed solvents of water and tert-butanol (10 mL). Concentrated HCl (4 mL) was added. The solvents were removed under reduced pressure, and the resulting solid was dried in vacuum. The compound was purified by recrystallization from a mixed solvent of THF and MeOH. The resulting solid was heated under reflux in methanol (about 3 mL) to remove the yellowish color. The solid was dried in vacuo. Compound X was obtained as white solid (84.4 mg, 20%). The ¹H and ¹³C NMR were consistent with the structure. Preparation of N-(3-aminopropane-1-sulfonyl)-phenylalanine, ethyl ester (Compound CL)

The 3-chloropropane-1-sulfonyl chloride (10 mmol, 1.21 mL) was added dropwise to a cold (−10° C.) solution of L-phenylalanine ethyl ester (10 mmol, 2.3 g) and 4-methylmorpholine (20 mmol, 2.2 mL) in dichloromethane (30 mL). The mixture was stirred for 30 minutes at −10° C. and for 2 hours at room temperature. The mixture was diluted with dichloromethane (40 mL) and washed twice with water, once with brine, dried over sodium sulfate. Evaporation of the solvent under reduced pressure gave rise to almost pure 3-chloropropyl sulfonamide as a yellow-oil in quantitative yield. The ¹H and ¹³C NMR were consistent with the structure.

A mixture of the 3-chloropropyl sulfonamide (10 mmol), sodium azide (20 mmol) and a catalytic amount of Bu₄NI in DMF (40 ml) was heated at 60° C. for 24 hours. The mixture was diluted with ethyl acetate, washed with water three times, and once with brine, dried over sodium sulfate. Evaporation of the solvent gave rise to the azide as a brown-oil (3.0489 g, 8.96 mmol, 90%). The ¹H and ¹³C NMR were consistent with the structure.

The azide (2.70 g, 7.94 mmol) was stirred under H₂ (40 psi) with 10% Pd/C (348 mg) in ethanol (16 mL) at room temperature overnight. The solid was removed by filtration over Celite. The filtrate was treated with TMSCl/EtOH in attempt to obtain a crystalline hydrochloride salt of the product. The solvent was evaporated to give a thick residue (2.2 g, 6.27 mmol, 79%) that crystallized under none of the conditions tried. The crude hydrochloric acid salt was dissolved in dichloromethane and washed once with saturated sodium bicarbonate. The organic layer was recovered and dried over sodium sulfate. The solvent was removed by evaporation under reduced pressure. The residue was dissolved in methanol and treated with activated charcoal. The solid was removed by filtration over Celite and the filtrate was evaporated to dryness. The residue was dried in vacuo to afford a tan oil (1.3969 g, 56% from the azide). The ¹H and ¹³C NMR were consistent with the structure of Compound CL. Preparation of N-BOC-L-Phe-(3-aminopropane-1-sulfonyl)-L-Phe, ethyl ester (Compound Y)

A solution of N-t-BOC-L-Phe N-hydroxysuccinimide ester (2.80 mmol, 1.01 g) in dichloromethane (12 mL) was added to a cold (0° C.) solution of 3-aminopropane-1-sulfonyl-L-Phe-OEt (2.66 mmol, 839 mg) in dichloromethane (10 mL). The mixture was stirred overnight at room temperature. The mixture was diluted with dichloromethane, and washed with 2N HCl, aqueous saturated NaHCO₃, and brine. The organic layer was dried over magnesium sulfate and the solvent was removed under reduced pressure. The residue was applied on flash column chromatography on silica gel (2% MeOH in CHCl₃). A portion of the pure desired material (600 mg) was isolated. The remaining product was mixed with 40% of the succinimide. Some 3-aminopropanol (70 μL) was added to the mixture that was dissolved in dichloromethane (8 mL) and cooled to 0° C. The mixture was stirred for 1 hour at room temperature. The mixture was diluted with dichloromethane, and washed with 2N HCl, aqueous saturated NaHCO₃, brine. The organic layer was dried over magnesium sulfate and the solvent was removed under reduced pressure. The product was purified by flash column chromatography on silica gel (2% MeOH in CHCl₃). Another portion of the pure desired material (432.4 mg) was isolated along with the adduct of the succinimide and 3-aminopropanol (220.6 mg, 0.684 mmol). Compound Y was obtained as a white crystalline foamy solid (1030 mg, 1.83 mmol, 65%). The IH and ¹³C NMR were consistent with the structure. Preparation of L-Phe-(3-aminopropane-1-sulfonyl)-L-Phe, ethyl ester (Compound Z)

Concentrated HCl (0.8 mL) was added to a cold (0° C.) solution of the N-Boc-L-Phe-(3-Aminopropane-1-Sulfonyl)-L-Phe, Ethyl Ester (197 mg, 0.350 mmol) in ethanol (8 mL). The mixture was cooled using an ice/water bath and stirred for 45 min and for 3 hours at room temperature. And the mixture was kept in freezer (−20° C.) over the weekend. The solvent was removed under reduced pressure. The residual ethanol was removed by coevaporation 3 times with chloroform under reduced pressure. The residue was dried in vacuo to give an off-white crystalline solid (175.3 mg) in quantitative yield. The ¹H and ¹³C NMR were consistent with the structure of Compound Z. Preparation of L-(N-Boc)-Phe-(3-aminopropane-1-sulfonyl)-L-Phe, Sodium Salt (Compound AA)

One equivalent of 1N NaOH (202 μL) was added to a solution of L-(N-Boc)-Phe-(3-aminopropane-1-sulfonyl)-L-Phe, ethyl ester (110 mg, 0.197 mmol) in methanol (2 mL). The mixture was stirred overnight at room temperature. A white suspension was observed after overnight stirring. MeOH (1 mL), water (1 mL) and 1N NaOH (10 μL) were added. The mixture was stirred in a warm water bath for about 2 hours. The solvent methanol was removed under reduced pressure. The wet residue was then freeze-dried to give compound AA as a white powder in quantitative yield (110.2 mg). The ¹H and ¹³C NMR were consistent with the structure. Preparation of L-Phe-(3-aminopropane-1-sulfonyl)-L-Phe, methyl ester (Compound AB)

The hydrolysis was done by the conventional LiOH/MeOH method. The product was purified by recrystallization from EtOAc and Hexanes.

The L-(N-Boc)-Phe-(3-aminopropane-1-sulfonyl)-L-Phe-OH (203 mg, 0.382 mmol) was dissolved in methanol (4 mL) and the solution was cooled to 0° C. Concentrated HCl (0.35 mL) was added and the mixture was stirred for 2 hours at 0° C. and for 2.5 h at room temperature. The volatile solvents were removed under reduced pressure. The aqueous residue was freeze-dried to give the product as a white solid (171.4 mg). The NMR and MS showed to product to be a mixture of the free acid and the methyl ester. The MS showed also a strong association of the peptide. The dimer was the major species on the MS. The solid was dissolved into methanol and treated with HCl overnight at room temperature. The solvent was evaporated and the residue was dried in vacuo. The product was obtained as a white foamy solid (180.4 mg, 97%). The ¹H and ¹³C NMR were consistent with the structure of compound AB. Preparation of 4-iodo-N-(3-sulfopropyl)-L-phenylalanine amide (Compound CO)

Thionyl chloride (8.2 mL, 112.5 mmol) was added to a cold MeOH (60 mL, in an ice-bath). The ice bath was removed and 4-iodo-L-phenylalanine (6.55 g, 22.4 mmol) was added to the mixture. The solution was stirred at reflux for 2 h. The solvent was removed under reduced pressure. The residual solid was dissolved in MeOH (40 mL) and the solution was poured into Et₂O (300 mL). The solid was collected by filtration, washed with Et₂O (2×50 mL) and dried in vacuo.

The solid (1.96 g, 5.8 mmol) was dissolved in a minimum amount of water. To the solution was added aqueous NH₄OH (28-30%, 15 mL). The reaction mixture was stirred at room temperature over weekend. The solvent was removed under reduced pressure and EtOAc (15 mL) was added. The mixture was heated under reflux. The hot solution was filtered. The filtrate was cooled to room temperature and was stored in the fridge. The solid was collected by filtration, washed with EtOAc, to give 4-iodophenylalanine amide.

The amide (1.3 g, 4.4 mmol) was dissolved in 15 mL of 2-butanone with a few drops of DMF before 1,3-propane sultone (560 mg, 4.9 mmol) was added. The reaction mixture was stirred at reflux for 2 hours. The mixture was cooled to room temperature. The solid was collected by filtration, washed with acetone (2×20 mL) and dried in vacuo. The solid was suspended in MeOH (25 mL) and a small amount of water (1 mL). The suspension was stirred at reflux. The solid material was collected by filtration while the mixture was still hot. The solid was washed with hot MeOH (2×10 mL). Compound CO was obtained as a white solid (320 mg). Preparation of 3-[4-(4-fluorophenyl)-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridin-1-yl]-1-propanesulfonic acid (Compound F)

The 4-(4-fluorophenyl)-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine hydrochloride (2.58 g, 14.5 mmol) was treated with 1N NaOH (20 mL). The aqueous mixture was extracted with CH₂Cl₂ (20 mL). The organic layer was separated and dried over MgSO₄. The solvents were removed by evaporation under reduced pressure.

To a solution of 4-(4-fluorophenyl)-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (1.96 g, 13.7 mmol) in acetone (30 mL) was added 1,3-propane sultone (1.74 g, 14.5 mmol). The mixture was stirred at reflux overnight. Only a small amount of compound precipitated. The resulting suspension was cooled to room temperature with stirring and a larger amount of solid precipitated. The suspension was heated with the addition of a small amount of MeOH until complete dissolution of the solid. The resulting solution was stirred at reflux for a few minutes and was cooled to room temperature with stirring. The solid was collected by filtration, washed with MeOH and dried in vacuo. This allowed the isolation of compound F, 1.33 g (32%). Preparation of 3-[4-(4-bromophenyl)₄-hydroxypiperidin-1-yl]-1-propanesulfonic acid (Compound G)

To a solution of 4-(4-bromophenyl)-4-piperidinol (2.51 g, 9.8 mmol) in MeOH (25 mL) was added 1,3-propane sultone (1.28 g, 10.7 mmol). The mixture was stirred at reflux for 2 h. Only a small amount of compound precipitated. The resulting suspension was cooled to room temperature with stirring and a solution of 50% MeOH/Acetone was added to precipitate a maximum of compound. The solid was collected by filtration, washed with 50% MeOH/Acetone (2×25 mL) and dried in vacuo. This allowed the isolation of compound G, 2.11 g (57%). Preparation of 3-[4-(4-chlorophenyl)-4-hydroxypiperidin-1-yl]-1-propanesulfonic acid (Compound H)

To a solution of 4-(4-chlorophenyl)-4-piperidinol (2.5 g, 11.8 mmol) in acetone (25 mL) was added 1,3-propane sultone (1.56 g, 13.0 mmol). The mixture was stirred at reflux for 2 h. The reaction mixture was cooled to room temperature. The solid was collected by filtration, washed with acetone (2×20 mL) and dried in vacuo. This allowed the isolation of compound H, 2.83 g (72%). Preparation of 3-(4-acetyl-4-phenylpiperidin-1-yl)-1-propanesulfonic acid (Compound I)

4-Acetyl-4-phenylpiperidine hydrochloride (3.32 g, 12.5 mmol) was treated with 1N NaOH (20 mL). The aqueous mixture was extracted with CH₂Cl₂ (20 mL). The organic layer was separated, dried over Na₂SO₄, filtered, and the solvent was removed under reduced pressure.

To a solution of 4-acetylphenylpiperidine (1.83 g, 9.0 mmol) in acetone (22 mL) was added 1,3-propane sultone (1.20 g, 10.0 mmol). The mixture was stirred at reflux for 2 hours. The reaction mixture was cooled to room temperature. The solid was collected by filtration, washed with acetone (2×20 mL) and dried in vacuo. This allowed the isolation of compound I, 2.65 g (90%). Preparation of 3-[4-(4-chlorophenyl)-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridin-1-yl]-1-propanesulfonic acid (Compound J)

The 4-(4-chlorophenyl)-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine hydrochloride (2.52 g, 10.9 mmol) was treated with 1N NaOH (20 mL); and aqueous mixture was extracted with CH₂Cl₂ (20 mL). The organic layer was separated, dried over Na₂SO₄, and filtered. The solvent was removed under reduced pressure.

To a solution of 4-(4-chlorophenyl)-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (2.07 g, 10.7 mmol) in acetone (25 mL) was added 1,3-propane sultone (1.41 g, 11.8 mmol). The mixture was stirred at reflux for 2 h. The reaction mixture was cooled to room temperature. The solid was collected by filtration, washed with acetone (2×20 mL) and dried in vacuo. The product was suspended in 50% MeOH/acetone (75 mL). The suspension was stirres at reflux for 5 minutes before 25 mL of cold acetone was added. The solid material was filtered and washed with acetone (2×25 mL). This allowed the isolation of compound J, 1.48 g (44%). Preparation of 3-(4-phenylpiperazin-1-yl)-1-propanesulfonic acid (Compound K)

To a solution of 1-phenylpiperazine (2.0 g, 1.9 mL, 12.3 mmol) in acetone (20 mL) was added 1,3-propane sultone (1.53 g, 12.9 mmol). The mixture was stirred at reflux for 2 hours. The reaction mixture was cooled to room temperature. The solid was collected by filtration, washed with acetone (2×25 mL) and dried in vacuo. This allowed the isolation of compound K, 3.04 g (87%). Preparation of 3-[4-(4-chlorophenyl)piperazin-1-yl]-1-propanesulfonic acid (Compound L)

The 1-(4-chlorophenyl)piperazine dihydrochloride (2.5 g, 9.3 mmol) was treated with 1N NaOH (40 mL); and the aqueous mixture was extracted with CH₂Cl₂ (40 mL). The organic layer was separated, dried over Na₂SO₄, filtered and solvent was removed under reduced pressure.

To a solution of 1-(4-chlorophenyl)piperazine (1.62 g, 8.2 mmol) in acetone (20 mL) was added 1,3-propane sultone (1.06 g, 8.6 mmol). The mixture was stirred at reflux for 2 h. The reaction mixture was cooled to room temperature. The solid was collected by filtration, washed with acetone (2×25 mL) and dried in vacuo. This allowed the isolation of compound L, 2.11 g (81%). Preparation of 3-[4-(2-fluorophenyl)piperazin-1-yl]-1-propanesulfonic acid (Compound M)

To a solution of 1-(2-fluorophenyl)piperazine (2.5 g, 2.2 mL, 13.9 mmol) in acetone (25 mL) was added 1,3-propane sultone (1.73 g, 14.6 mmol). The mixture was stirred at reflux for 2 hours. The reaction mixture was cooled to room temperature. The solid was collected by filtration, washed with acetone (2×25 mL) and dried in vacuo. This allowed the isolation of compound M, 3.56 g (85%). Preparation of 3-[4-(4-nitrophenyl)piperazin-1-yl]-1-propanesulfonic acid (Compound N)

To a solution of 1-(4-nitrophenyl)piperazine (2.58 g, 12.1 mmol) in acetone (25 mL) was added 1,3-propane sultone (1.06 g, 8.6 mmol). The mixture was stirred at reflux for 2 h. The reaction was cooled to room temperature. The solid was collected by filtration, washed with acetone (2×25 mL) and dried in vacuo. This allowed the isolation of compound N, 2.85 g (71%). Preparation of 3-[4-(4-fluorophenyl)piperazin-1-yl]-1-propanesulfonic acid (Compound P)

To a solution of 1-(4-fluorophenyl)piperazine (2.0 g, 11.1 mmol) in acetone (20 mL) was added 1,3-propane sultone (1.46 g, 11.7 mmol). The mixture was stirred at reflux for 2 hours. The reaction mixture was cooled to room temperature. The solid was collected by filtration, washed with acetone (2×25 mL) and dried in vacuo. This allowed the isolation of compound P, 2.62 g (78%). Preparation of 3-(4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridin-1-yl)propanoic acid (Compound Q)

The 4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine hydrochloride (1.5 g, 7.8 mmol) suspended in 16 mL of CH₂Cl₂. To this suspension was added triethylamine (2.1 mL, 15.3 mmol) followed by methyl 3-bromopropionate (1.0 mL, 9.2 mmol). The reaction was stirred at room temperature for 4 h and at reflux for 2 h. The reaction mixture was washed with water, 1N HCl (2×20 mL), 1N NaOH (2×20 mL) and Brine (1×20 mL). The organic layer was separated, dried over Na₂SO₄, filtered; and solvent was removed under reduced pressure.

To the crude product was added 2N NaOH (15 mL). The mixture was stirred at reflux for 1 h. The reaction mixture was washed with CH₂Cl₂ (3×20 mL) and neutralized with concentrated HCl. The aqueous solution was concentrated to dryness under reduced pressure, to give a solid residue. Sodium chloride in the residue was removed in the following way (three repeats): dissolving the residue in a minimum amount of water, treating the aqueous solution with acetone, removing the resultant solid material by filtration, and concentrate the filtrate to dryness under reduced pressure. This allowed the isolation of compound Q (159.4 mg). Preparation of 3-dibenzylamino-1-propanesulfonic acid (Compound AV)

To a solution of dibenzylamine (9.8 mL, 50.8 mmol) in toluene (50 mL) was added 1,3-propane sultone (6.50 g, 53.3 mmol). The mixture was stirred at reflux for 3 h. A sticky paste was formed at the bottom of the flask. The reaction mixture was cooled to room temperature. The top layer was decanted; and the paste was partially dissolved in EtOAc with heating. The mixture was poured in a 10% EtOAc/Hexanes (200 mL). The mixture was heated and the paste was spread on the walls of the conical flask. The solvent was removed. This process was repeated twice. MeOH (75 mL) was added to the paste. The mixture was heated until a white solid appeared. The solid was collected by filtration, washed with cold MeOH, and dried in vacuo, affording compound AV, 7.03 g (43%). Preparation of 3-(4-cyano-4-phenylpiperidin-1-yl)-1-propanesulfonic acid (Compound E)

The 4-cyano-4-phenylpiperidine hydrochloride (2.0 g, 9.0 mmol) was treated with 1N NaOH (20 mL) and the aqueous phase was extracted with CH₂Cl₂ (20 mL). The organic layer was separated, dried over MgSO₄, filtered and solvent was removed under reduced pressure.

To a solution of piperidine (1.43 g, 7.7 mmol) in acetone (20 mL) was added 1,3-propane sultone (1.02 g, 8.5 mmol). The mixture was stirred at reflux for 2 h. The resulting suspension was cooled to room temperature. The solid was collected by filtration, washed with acetone and dried in vacuo. The solid was recrystallized from MeOH (and traces of water) to afford compound E, 800 mg (34%). Preparation of 3-(4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridin-1-yl)butanoic acid hydrochloride (Compound R)

The 4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine hydrochloride (2.01 g, 10.2 mmol) was treated with 1N NaOH (20 mL) and the aqueous phase wa extracted with CH₂Cl₂ (20 mL). The organic layer was separated, dried over MgSO₄, filtered and solvent was removed under reduced pressure.

The resulting 4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (1.55 g, 9.7 mmol) was dissolved in 20 mL of 2-butanone. To this solution was added potassium carbonate (2.02 g, 14.6 mmol). The mixture was stirred 30 minutes at room temperature; ethyl 4-bromobutyrate (1.46 mL, 10.1 mmol) was added. The reaction mixture was stirred at reflux for 5 hours. After cooling to room temperature, inorganic salts were filtered. The solvent was evaporated under reduced pressure. The residue was dissolved in CH₂Cl₂ (30 mL). The organic phase was washed with water (2×30 mL), 2N HCl (2×30 mL) and Brine (2×30 mL). The organic layer was dried with Na₂SO₄, filtered, evaporated under reduced pressure and dried in vacuo. This allowed the isolation of 1.55 g (58%) of the desired ester.

The ester (5.7 mmol) was dissolved in 6N HCl (40 mL). The reaction mixture was stirred at room temperature for 5 hours and at reflux for 1 hour before it was cooled to room temperature. The reaction mixture was extracted with CH₂Cl₂ (3×30 mL). The aqueous phase was evaporated under reduced pressure. The residue was dissolved in water (20 mL); and the aqueous solution was concentrated to dryness under reduced pressure. The resultant material was futher dried in vacuo, affording compound R, 973 mg (61%). Preparation of 3-piperonylamino-1-propanesulfonic acid (Compound AW)

To a solution of piperonylamine (2.5 mL, 19.8 mmol) in acetone (30 mL) was added 1,3-propane sultone (2.52 g, 20.8 mmol). The mixture stirred at reflux for 2 hours. The reaction mixture was cooled to room temperature. The solid material was collected by filtration, washed with acetone (2×25 mL) and dried in vacuo. The product was suspended in 90% Acetone/MeOH (75 mL). The suspension was stirred at reflux for 30 sec., the solid was collected by filtration and dried in vacuo. This allowed the isolation of compound AW, 2.56 g (45%). Preparation of 3-(3,4,5-trimethoxybenzyl)amino-1-propanesulfonic acid (Compound AY)

To a solution of 3,4,5-trimethoxybenzylamine (2.2 mL, 12.7 mmol) in 2-butanone (20 mL) was added 1,3-propane sultone (1.66 g, 13.3 mmol). The mixture was stirred at reflux for 2 hours. The reaction mixture was cooled to room temperature. The solid was collected by filtration, washed with acetone (2×25 mL) and dried in vacuo. The product was suspended in 90% Acetone/MeOH (75 mL). The suspension was stirred at reflux for 30 sec., the solid was collected by filtration, and dried in vacuo; affording compound AY, 2.61 g (64%). Preparation of 3-(2,3-dimethoxybenzyl)amino-1-propanesulfonic acid (Compound AZ)

To a solution of 2,3-dimethoxybenzylamine (2.2 mL, 15.0 mmol) in 2-butanone (20 mL) was added 1,3-propane sultone (1.97 g, 15.8 mmol). The mixture was stirred at reflux for 2 hours. The reaction mixture was cooled to room temperature. The solid was collected by filtration, washed with acetone (2×25 mL) and dried in vacuo. The crude product was suspended in 90% Acetone/MeOH (75 mL). The suspension was stirred at reflux for 30 seconds, the solid was collected by filtration, and dried in vacuo; affording compound AZ, 1.95 g (45%). Preparation of 3-(N-benzhydrylcarbamyl)amino-1-propanesulfonic acid (Compound AF)

The 3-amino-1-propanesulfonic acid (1.0 g, 7.2 mmol) was dissolved in 3N NaOH (370 mg, 9.4 mmol in 3 mL of water). After the solution was cooled to 0° C., diphenylmethyl isocyanate (1.4 mL, 7.2 mmol) was added. The reaction mixture was allowed to warm up to room temperature, stirred for 8 h (r.t.), and followed by addition of 3N NaOH (3 mL). The reaction mixture was stirred for 18 h. The pH of the reaction mixture was brought to 3 with 5N HCl. The solvent was evaporated under reduced pressure. EtOH (15 mL) was added and the mixture was stirred at reflux for 30 sec. The hot mixture was filtered. The filtrate was evaporated to dryness. This process was repeated 2 more times. The final product was dried in vacuo, affording compound AF, 837 mg (34%). Preparation of 3-(3,5-dimethoxybenzyl)amino-1-propanesulfonic acid (Compound BA)

To a solution of 3,5-dimethoxybenzylamine (2.5 g, 15.0 mmol) in 2-butanone (22 mL) was added 1,3-propane sultone (1.95 g, 15.8 mmol). The mixture was stirred at reflux for 2 hours. The reaction mixture was cooled to room temperature. The solid was collected by filtration, washed with acetone (2×25 mL), and dried in vacuo. This allowed the isolation of compound BA, 2.89 g (67%). Preparation of 3-(2,4-dimethoxybenzyl)amino-1-propanesulfonic acid (Compound BB)

The 2,4-dimethoxybenzylamine hydrochloride (2.51 g, 12.3 mmol) was treated with 1N NaOH (20 mL) and the aqueous phase was extracted with CH₂Cl₂ (20 mL). The organic layer was separated, dried over MgSO₄, and filtered. Solvent was removed under reduced pressure to give the amine (free base form).

To a solution of 2,4-dimethoxybenzylamine (1.71 g, 10.3 mmol) in 2-butanone (15 mL) was added 1,3-propane sultone (1.31 g, 10.7 mmol). The mixture was stirred at reflux for 2.5 h. The reaction mixture was cooled to room temperature. The supernatant was decanted; and the paste was washed with acetone (2×30 mL), and dissolved in MeOH with heating. Acetone addition to the methanolic solution caused precipitation. The solid material was collected by filtration, washed with acetone (2×25 mL), and dried in vacuo; affording compound BB, 1.14 g (38%). Preparation of 3-(phenylacetamido)-1-propanesulfonic acid, Sodium Salt (Compound AG)

3-amino-1-propanesulfonic acid (1.0 g, 7.2 mmol) was dissolved in solution of 3M NaOH (7.2 mL). The mixture was cooled to 0° C. before phenylacetyl chloride (1.4 mL, 10.8 mmol) was added. The reaction mixture was allowed to warm up to room temperature and it was stirred for 22 h. The solvent was evaporated under reduced pressure. The residue was suspended in 50% EtOH/Acetone. The mixture was stirred at reflux for 30 sec. The solid material was collected by filtration and dried in vacuo. The product was recrystallized from 95% EtOH/H₂O and dried in vacuo. This allowed the isolation of compound AG, 880 mg (44%). Preparation of 3-(N-benzylcarbamyl)amino-1-propanesulfonic acid, Sodium Salt (Compound AH)

3-amino-1-propanesulfonic acid (1.06 g, 7.7 mmol) was dissolved in 1.5N NaOH (5.3 mL). To this solution was added benzyl isocyanate (927 μL, 7.7 mmol). The reaction mixture was stirred at 70° C. for 30 min, followed by addition to the mixture one-equivalent of benzyl isocyanate (927 μL, 7.7 mmol). The reaction mixture was stirred for 1 hour. The solvent was evaporated under reduced pressure. The residue was suspended in hot acetone. The solid material was collected by filtration, washed with hot acetone, and dried in vacuo; affording compound AH, 2.07 g (92%). Preparation of 3-(N-n-dodecylcarbamyl)amino-1-propanesulfonic acid, Sodium Salt (Compound AJ)

3-amino-1-propanesulfonic acid (1.06 g, 7.7 mmol) was dissolved in 1.5N NaOH (5.3 mL). To this solution was added n-dodecyl isocyanate (1.7 mL, 7.7 mmol). The reaction mixture was stirred at 70° C. for 30 min followed by addition to the mixture one-equivalent of n-dodecyl isocyanate (1.7 mL, 7.7 mmol). The reaction mixture was stirred for 1 h. The solvent was removed under reduced pressure. The residual material was suspended in hot acetone. The solid material was collected by filtration, washed with hot acetone, and dried in vacuo; affording compound AJ, 2.47 g (86%). Preparation of 3-(N-1-adamantylcarbamyl)amino-1-propanesulfonic acid, Sodium Salt (Compound AK)

3-amino-1-propanesulfonic acid (1.06 g, 7.7 mmol) was dissolved in 1.5N NaOH (5.3 mL). To this solution was added 1-adamantyl isocyanate (1.36 g 7.7 mmol) in hot EtOH (5 mL). The reaction mixture was stirred at 70° C. for 30 min followed by addition (to the mixture) of one-equivalent of 1-adamantyl isocyanate (1.37, 7.7 mmol) in hot EtOH (5 mL). The reaction mixture was stirred for 1 h. The solvent was removed under reduced pressure. The residue was suspended in hot acetone. The solid material was collected by filtration, washed with hot acetone, and dried in vacuo. The solid was recrystallized from EtOH, affording compound AK, 519.4 mg (20%). Preparation of 3-[2-(4-isobutylphenyl)propanoyl]amino-1-propanesulfonic acid, Sodium Salt (Compound AL)

Thionyl chloride (1.6 mL, 21.1 mmol) was added to ibuprofen (1.02 g, 4.9 mmol). The reaction mixture was heated to reflux for 4 h. The solvent was evaporated, dried in vacuo, giving corresponding acid chloride.

3-amino-1-propanesulfonic acid (308 mg, 2.2 mmol) was dissolved in 1.5N NaOH (3 mL). To this solution was added dropwise the acid chloride (500.8 mg, 4.4 mmol, prepared above). The reaction mixture was stirred at 70° C. overnight. The solvent was removed under reduced pressure. The residue was suspended in acetone. The suspension was stirred at reflux for 30 seconds. The solid material was removed by filtration. The filtrate was evaporated to dryness under reduced pressure. The residual material was subjected to separation by flash chromatography (80% CH₂Cl₂/MeOH). This allowed the isolation of compound AL, 237 mg (14%). Preparation of 3-[(benzylamino)thiocarbonyl]amino-1-propanesulfonic acid, Sodium Salt (Compound AM)

3-amino-1-propanesulfonic acid (1.07 g, 7.7 mmol) was dissolved in 1.5N NaOH (5.3 mL). To this solution was added benzyl isothiocyanate (1.02 mL, 7.7 mmol). The reaction mixture was stirred at 70° C. for 0.5 h; a second-equivalent of benzyl isocyanate (1.02 mL, 7.7 mmol) was added. The reaction mixture was stirred for 1 h. The solvent was evaporated under reduced pressure. The residue was suspended in hot acetone. The solid material was collected by filtration, washed with hot acetone, and dried in vacuo. The residual material was recrystallized from MeOH (traces of water), affording compound AM, 1.00 g (42%). Preparation of 3-(3,4-dihydroxybenzyl)amino-1-propanesulfonic acid (Compound S)

To a solution of 3,4-dimethoxybenzylamine (2.2 mL, 15.0 mmol) in 2-butanone (20 mL) was added 1,3-propane sultone (1.98 g, 15.8 mmol). The mixture was stirred at reflux for 2 hours. The reaction mixture was cooled to room temperature. The solid was collected by filtration, washed with acetone (2×25 mL) and dried in vacuo. The crude product was suspended in 75% Acetone/MeOH (75 mL). The suspension was stirred at reflux for 30 sec.; the solid material was collected by filtration, washed with acetone (2×25 mL), and dried in vacuo. The solid (1.94 g, 6.7 mmol) was dissolved hydrobromic acid (48%, 27 mL). The solution was stirred at 100° C. for 4 h. The solvent was removed under reduced pressure. The residue was dissolved in water (20 mL). The aqueous phase was washed with CH₂Cl₂ (3×20 mL), and evaporated under educed pressure. The solid residue was suspended in hot MeOH (75 mL). The suspension was stirred at reflux for 30 sec.; the solid was collected by filtration, washed with 50% MeOH/acetone, and dried in vacuo. This allowed the isolation of compound S, 1.22 g (70%). Preparation of 4-(3-phenylpropyl)-1-sulfopropylpyridinium hydroxide, Inner Salt (Compound C)

To a solution of 4-(3-phenylpropyl)pyridine (14.5 mL, 76 mmol) in 2-butanone (150 mL) was added 1,3-propane sultone (10.0 g, 83.6 mmol). The mixture was stirred at reflux for 1.5 h. Once the reaction mixture was cooled to room temperature, the precipitate was collected by filtration and washed with acetone. The solid material was recrystallized from EtOH (traces of Et₂O), affording compound C, 15.8 g (66%). Preparation of 4-(3-phenylpropyl)-1-sulfopropyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (Compound D)

4-(3-phenylpropyl)-1-sulfopropylpyridine (10.7 g, 33.5 mmol) was dissolved in 60 mL of MeOH. The solution was cooled to 0° C. before sodium borohydride (2.55 g, 67.0 mmol) was added portionwise. The reaction mixture was stirred for 0.5 hour at room temperature. Water (10 mL) and concentrated HCl (5 mL) were successively added to the mixture. The inorganic material was removed by filtration. The filtrate was concentrated to dryness under reduced pressure and dried in vacuo. The resultant viscous residue was dissolved in MeOH (60 mL). The solution was stirred with Amberlite IR-120 ion exchange resin (8.3 g) for 15 min. The resin was removed by filtration and washed with MeOH. The filtrate and washing was combined and concentrated to dryness under reduced pressure. The residual material was recrystallized from water, affording compound D (8.05 g, 75%) as white crystals. Preparation of 3-ethylamino-1-propanesulfonic acid (Compound CV)

Tetrahydrofuran (THF, 800 mL) was placed a 3 neck 2-L flask (equipped with a condenser) and cooled to 5° C. with an ice-bath. To the cold THF was added aqueous ethylamine (70 wt. % solution in water, 85 mL, 1.07 mol), followed by addition of a cold solution of 1,3-propane sultone (25.08 g, 201 mmol) in THF (100 mL) over 24-min period. The mixture was stirred, while cooled with an ice-bath, for 1 h. The ice-bath was removed and the mixture was stirred at room temperature overnight. It was then heated under reflux for 1 h to distill off the ethylamine. The hot mixture was biphasic. Upon cooling, a solid crystallized at the bottom of the flask. Ether (400 mL) was added and the mixture was cooled to −20° C. The supernatant was decanted. Methanol (about 120 mL) was added to the residue. The mixture was heated to reflux; and complete dissolution of the solid material was achieved. After the solution was cooled to room temperature, precipitates formed. The mixture was cooled in an ice-bath; and the solid material was collected by filtration, rinsed with cold methanol and dried in vacuo (20.66 g, pure by NMR analysis). The solid material was recrystallized from methanol (100 mL). After the mixture was cooled using an ice-bath, the solid was collected by filtration, rinsed with cold methanol, and dried in a vacuum oven at 40° C. Compound CV was obtained as white fine needles (19.12 g, 57%). The ¹H and ¹³C NMR were consistent with the structure. Preparation of 3-(1-adamantyl)amino-1-propanesulfonic acid (Compound BW)

The 1-adamantanamine hydrochloride (80 g, 0.426 mol) was treated with NaOH (10%, 400 mL) in water. The aqueous mixture was extracted with dichloromethane (1×400 mL, 2×100 mL). The combined organic layers were washed with brine (50 mL) and dried over sodium sulfate (10 g). Solvent was removed under reduced pressure. The resulting white waxy solid was co-evaporated with acetonitrile (50 mL). The wet solid was suspended in acetonitrile (200 mL). The suspension mixture was added dropwise over 20 min to a solution of 1,3-propane sultone (53 g, 0.426 mol) in acetonitrile (300 mL) and THF (200 mL). The thick mixture was stirred for 2 hours under reflux with a mechanical stirrer. The suspension was then cooled to 13° C. The solid was collected by suction-filtration, rinsed with acetonitrile (2×100 mL) and ether (1×100 mL), air-dried for 30 min, and further dried in vacuo at 60° C. overnight (104.17 g for crop 1). Another crop was collected from the filtrate and dried in vacuo in the same manner (3.39 g for crop 2). Both crops gave identical proton NMR spectrum. The two batches were combined for further purification.

The solid was suspended in methanol (720 mL) and the mixture was heated to reflux. Water (490 mL) was added dropwise over 45 min, while maintaining reflux. After complete dissolution of the solid, the solution was kept under reflux for 30 minute. The mixture was left in the power-off heating mantle and allowed to cool slowly. After 90 min, the temperature reached 40° C. The heating mantle was replaced by a thermostated water bath. The mixture was cooled to 5° C. and stirred overnight at this temperature. The white flaky solid was collected by filtration, rinsed with cold (0° C.) methanol (2×125 mL), air-dried for 60 minutes, and then dried in the vacuum oven at 600C overnight. Compound BW was obtained as a white flaky solid (white plates, 88.48 g, 76% yield for the first crop). The ¹H NMR and MS were consistent with the structure. A second crop (8.62 g) of compound BW was obtained from the mother liquid. The ¹H NMR was identical to that of the first crop. This made the reaction a total yield of 83% from the hydrochloride. Preparation of 3-(2-norbornyl)amino-1-propanesulfonic acid (Compound BY)

To a solution of 2-aminonorbornane (7.3 g, 65.7 mmol) in 2-butanone (50 mL) was added dropwise a solution of 1,3-propane sulfone (8.1 g, 65.7 mmol) in 2-butanone (10 mL). The mixture was stirred at 60° C. for 1 h. The suspension was cooled to room temperature. The solid material was collected by filtration and washed with ethanol (2×20 mL). The crude material was recrystallized from 95% EtOH to afford compound BY as a white crystalline solid (8.2 g, 53% yield). Preparation of 3-(2-adamantyl)amino-1-propanesulfonic acid (Compound BZ)

The 2-aminoadamantane hydrochloride (2×5 g) was treated with NaOH in water. The aqueous mixture was extracted with dichloromethane. The organic layer was dried over magnesium sulfate. The solvent was removed under reduced pressure. The resulting white solid was dried 30 minutes at room temperature under vacuum. A solution of 1,3-propane sultone (7.4 g, 60 mmol) in THF was added to a solution of the free amine (7.98 g, 52 mmol) in THF (70 mL, total). The mixture was heated under reflux for 4 h, cooled into an ice bath. The solid was collected by filtration, air-dried for 15 min., and further dried in vacuo (11.2 g). Recrystallization was done with methanol/water (60 mL/35 mL). After cooled in a fridge, the solid was collected by filtration, rinsed with methanol, dried in the vacuum oven at 60° C. overnight. A white crystalline sandy solid (small plates, 10.45 g, 74% yield) was obtained. The ¹H and ¹³C NMR were consistent with the structure of Compound BZ. Preparation of 3-(3,4-dimethoxybenzyl)amino-1-propanesulfonic acid (Compound S)

To a solution of 3,4-dimethoxybenzylamine (2.2 mL, 15.0 mmol) in acetone (20 mL) was added 1,3-propane sultone (1.97 g, 15.8 mmol). The mixture was stirred at reflux for 2 hours. The reaction mixture was cooled to room temperature. The solid material was collected by filtration, washed with acetone (2×25 mL) and dried in vacuo. The crude product was suspended in 90% acetone/MeOH (75 mL). The suspension was stirred at reflux for 30 sec., the solid material was collected by filtration, and dried in vacuo. Compound S (1.84 g, 43%) was isolated as a white solid. ¹H NMR (D20, 500 MHz) δ ppm 6.96 (m, 3H), 4.06 (s, 2H), 3.74 (s, 6H), 3.07 (t, 1H, J=7.8 Hz), 2.86 (t, 1H, J=7.8 Hz), 2.01 (m, 2H). ¹³C NMR (D₂O, 125 MHz) δ ppm 149.23, 148.50, 123.63, 123.37, 55.90, 55.86, 50.96, 48.06, 45.62, 21.39. ES-MS 290 (M+1). Preparation of 3-(2,2-diphenylethyl)amino-1-propanesulfonic acid (Compound ET)

To a solution of 1,2-diphenylethylamine (2.49 g, 12.7 mmol) in 2-butanone (15 mL) was added 1,3-propane sultone (1.67 g, 13.3 mmol). The mixture was stirred at reflux for 2 hours. The reaction mixture was cooled to room temperature. The solid material was collected by filtration, washed with acetone (2×25 mL), and dried in vacuo, to give compound ET: 3.02 g (74%). ¹H NMR (DMSO, 500 MHz) δ ppm 8.58 (s (broad), 1H), 7.34 (m, 8H), 7.23 (t, 2H, J=7.3 Hz), 4.32 (t, 1H, J=7.8 Hz), 3.68 (d, 2H, J=7.3 Hz), 3.08 (t, 2H, J=6.1 Hz), 2.57 (t, 2H, J=7.3 Hz), 1.92 (m, 2H). ¹³C NMR (DMSO, 125 MHz) δ ppm 141.63, 129.46, 128.47, 127.76, 50.85, 49.91, 48.53, 22.07. ES-MS 318 (M−1). Preparation of 4-(tert-butylamino)-2-butanesulfonic acid (Compound ES)

To a solution of tert-butylamine (1.0 mL, 9.5 mmol) in tetrahydrofuran (15 mL) was added 2,4-butane sultone (1.33 g, 10.0 mmol). The mixture was stirred at reflux for 2 hours. The reaction mixture was cooled to room temperature. The solid product was collected by filtration, washed with THF (2×20 mL), and dried in vacuo; affording compound ES: ¹H NMR (DMSO, 500 MHz) δ ppm 2.97 (t, 2H, J=6.6 Hz), 2.62 (m, 1H), 1.95 (m, 0.5H), 1.750 (m, 0.5H), 1.22 (s, 9H), 1.12 (d, 3H, J=6.8 Hz). ¹³C NMR (DMSO, 125 MHz) δ ppm 56.17, 53.15, 29.87, 25.87, 17.05. ES-MS 207 (M−1).

Preparation of 4-(tert-butylamino)-1-butanesulfonic acid (Compound ER)

To a solution of tert-butylamine (1.0 mL, 9.5 mmol) in tetrahydrofuran (4 mL) was

added 1,4-butane sultone (1.36 g, 10.0 mmol) at room temperature. The solution was stirred at reflux for 2 hours. The reaction mixture was cooled to room temperature. The solid product was collected by filtration, washed with acetone (2×20 mL), and dried in vacuo; affording compound ER 690 mg, (34%); ¹H NMR (D₂O, 500 MHz) δ ppm 2.92 (t, 2H, J=7.1 Hz), 2.82 (t, 2H, J=7.1 Hz), 1.68 (m, 4H), 1.22 (s, 9H). ¹³C NMR (D₂O, 125 MHz) δ ppm 57.07, 50.30, 40.95, 25.28, 24.96, 21.62. ES-MS 210 (M−1). Preparation of 3-(3-pentyl)amino-1-propanesulfonic acid (Compound DD)

To a solution of 1-ethylpropylamine (10.0 g, 115 mmol) in tetrahydrofuran (80 mL) was added a solution of 1,3-propane sultone (13.7 g, 110 mmol) in 20 mL of THF. The solution was stirred at reflux for 2 hours. The reaction mixture was cooled to room temperature. The solid product was collected by filtration, washed with acetone (2×50 mL), and dried in vacuo., to afford compound DD (18.1, 80%): ¹H NMR (D20, 500 MHz) δ ppm 3.08 (t, 2H, J=7.3 Hz), 3.01 (m, 1H), 2.87 (t, 2H, J=7.3 Hz) 2.00 (m, 2H), 1.59 (m, 4H), 0.82 (t, 6H, J=7.3 Hz). ¹³C NMR (D₂O, 125 MHz) δ ppm 60.87, 48.14, 43.68, 21.81.21.60, 8.25. ES-MS 208 (M−1). Preparation of 3-(tert-amyl)amino-1-propanesulfonic acid (Compound DG)

To a solution of tert-amylamine (2.0 g, 23.3 mmol) in tetrahydrofuran (15 mL) was added 1,3-propane sultone (2.76 g, 22.2 mmol). The solution was stirred at reflux for 2 hours. The reaction mixture was cooled to room temperature. The solid product was collected by filtration, washed with acetone (2×25 mL), and dried in vacuo, to afford compound DG (3.3 g, 73%): ¹H NMR (D20, 500 MHz) δ ppm 3.04 (t, 2H, J=7.8 Hz), 2.89 (t, 2H, J=7.8 Hz), 2.87 (t, 2H, J=7.3 Hz), 1.97 (m, 2H), 1.55 (m, 2H), 1.18 (s, 6H), 0.82 (t, 6H, J=7.3 Hz). ¹³C NMR (D20, 125 MHz) δ ppm 60.42, 48.17, 39.88, 30.81, 22.23, 21.98, 7.25. ES-MS 208 (M−1). Preparation of 3-(1,1-dimethyl-2-hydroxyethyl)amino-1-propanesulfonic acid (Compound DH)

To a solution of 2-amino-2-methyl-1-propanol (2.0 g, 21.4 mmol) in tetrahydrofuran (15 mL) was added 1,3-propane sultone (2.66 g, 21.4 mmol). The mixture was stirred at reflux for 2 hours. The reaction mixture was cooled to room temperature. The crude product was collected by filtration, washed with acetone (2×25 mL). The solid was suspended in EtOH (50 mL). The suspension was stirred at reflux for 5 minutes. The solid was collected by filtration and dried in a vacuum oven (50° C.), affording compound DH (2.5 g, 58%): ¹H NMR (D₂O, 500 MHz) δ ppm 3.48 (s, 2H), 3.04 (t, 2H, J=7.8 Hz), 2.90 (t, 2H, J=7.3 Hz), 2.00 (m, 2H), 1.18 (s, 6H). ¹³C NMR (D₂O, 125 MHz) δ ppm 64.88, 60.27, 48.19, 40.10, 21.92, 20.02. ES-MS 210 (M−1). Preparation of 3-(1-carboxy-1-methylethylamino)-1-propanesulfonic acid (Compound DI)

To a cold (5° C.) mixture of 2-aminoisobutyric acid (2.0 g, 19.4 mmol), NaOH (776 mg, 19.4 mmol) in 1,4-dioxane (10 mL) and water (4 mL) was added via syringe pump (over a 4-hour period), a solution 1,3-propane sultone (2.02 g, 16.2 mmol) in 1,4-dioxane (total: 4 mL). The solution was stirred at room temperature for 2 hours before it was allowed to warm up to room temperature. The reaction mixture was stirred under these conditions overnight. The solvent was evaporated under reduced pressure. The resultant solid material was recrystallized from 5% water/EtOH. The resulting solid was dissolved in water; and the aqueous solution was passed through an ion exchange column (Dowex 50WX 8, 100 g, solvent: water). The solvent was evaporated under reduced pressure. The product was lyophilized to afford Compound DI (880 mg, 28%). ¹H NMR (D20, 500 MHz) δ ppm 3.00 (t, 2H, J=7.6 Hz), 2.91 (t, 2H, J=7.3 Hz), 2.01 (m, 2H), 1.34 (s, 6H). ¹³C NMR (D20, 125 MHz) δ ppm 176.93, 63.89, 48.13, 42.04, 22.15, 21.86. ES-MS 224 (M−1). Preparation of 3-[(1R,2S)-2-methylcyclohexyl]amino-1-propanesulfonic acid (Compound DJ)

To a solution of 2-methylcyclohexylamine (98% cis and trans isomers, 10.0 g, 88.3 mmol) in tetrahydrofuran (60 mL) was slowly added a solution of 1,3-propane sultone (10.5 g, 84.1 mmol) in THF (20 mL). The mixture was stirred at reflux for 2 hours. The reaction mixture was cooled to room temperature. The solid material was collected by filtration, washed with acetone (2×50 mL). The solid was dissolved in 50% EtOH/water (200 mL); and solution was treated with Dowex 50WX8 resin (15 g). The suspension stirred at room temperature for 15 min. The resin was removed by filtration. The filtrate was concentrated to half of the original volume on a rotary evaporator. The solid product slowly crystallized. The product was collected by filtration, washed with acetone (2×50 mL) and dried in a vacuum oven (50° C.), to afford compound DJ (10.4 g, 53%): ¹H NMR (D₂O, 500 MHz) δ ppm 3.15 (m, 1H), 3.03 (m, 1H), 2.88 (t, 2H, J=7.3 Hz), 2.76 (m, 1H), 1.98 (m, 3H), 1.68 (m, 2H), 1.51 (m, 2H), 1.18 (m, 3H), 1.01 (m, 1H), 0.92 (m, 3H). ¹³C NMR (D₂O, 125 MHz) δ ppm 62.97, 48.16, 42.72, 34.77, 33.50, 27.57, 24.51, 24.23, 21.51, 17.80. ES-MS 234 (M-1). Preparation of 3-(2,3-dimethylcyclohexyl)amino-1-propanesulfonic acid (Compound DK)

To a solution of 2,3-dimethylcyclohexylamine (10.0 g, 79.0 mmol) in tetrahydrofuran (60 mL) was slowly added a solution of 1,3-propane sultone (9.3 g, 75.0 mmol) in THF (20 mL). The solution was stirred at reflux for 2 hours. The reaction mixture was cooled to room temperature. The solid was collected by filtration, washed with THF (50 mL) and acetone (50 mL). The solid was dissolved in 25% EtOH/water (150 mL), and treated with Dowex 50WX8 resin (15 g). The suspension stirred at room temperature for 5 minutes. The resin was removed by filtration. The filtrate was concentrated to dryness under reduced pressure; and the solid residue was suspended in acetone (100 mL). The solid material was collected by filtration, and dried in vacuo; affording compound DK (7.4 g, 43%). ¹H NMR (D₂O, 500 MHz) δ ppm 3.29 (m, 0.5H), 3.09 (m, 2H), 2.88 (t, 2H, J=7.3 Hz), 2.80 (m, 0.5H), 1.99 (m, 3H), 1.40 (m, 7H), 0.81 (m, 6H). ¹³C NMR (D20, 125 MHz) δ ppm 62.85, 61.56, 59.88, 58.22, 48.26, 48.15, 44.29, 43.84, 43.59, 42.65, 42.01, 41.03, 37.34, 36.12, 34.73, 34.45, 33.88, 33.64, 29.39, 28.00, 26.50, 24.25, 24.02, 23.64, 22.42, 21.55, 21.45, 21.35, 19.38, 19.13, 18.82, 18.40, 14.38, 13.39, 4.59. ES-MS 248 (M−1). Preparation of 3-neopentylamino-1-propanesulfonic acid (Compound DL)

To a solution of neopentylamine (8.5 g, 98 mmol) in tetrahydrofuran (75 mL) was slowly added a solution of 1,3-propane sultone (11.5 g, 93 mmol) in THF (20 mL). The solution was stirred at reflux for 2 hours. The reaction mixture was cooled to room temperature. The solid was collected by filtration, washed with acetone (2×50 mL). The solid was suspended in EtOH (150 mL). The suspension was stirred at reflux for 15 minutes. The solid product was collected by filtration, washed with acetone (2×50 mL), and dried in vacuo, to afford compound DL (13.3 g, 69%). ¹H NMR (D₂O, 500 MHz) δ ppm 3.09 (t, 2H, J=7.3 Hz), 2.89 (t, 2H, J=7.3 Hz), 2.78 (s, 2H), 2.04 (m, 2H), 0.901 (s, 9H). ¹³C NMR (D₂O, 125 MHz) δ ppm 59.44, 48.31, 47.83, 29.91, 26.42, 21.06. ES-MS 208 (M−1). Preparation of 3-cumylamino-1-propanesulfonic acid (Compound DM)

To a solution of cumylamine (10.5 g, 78 mmol) in tetrahydrofuran (75 mL) was slowly added a solution of 1,3-propane sultone (9.2 g, 74 mmol) in THF (20 mL). The mixture was stirred at reflux for 4 h. The reaction mixture was cooled to room temperature. The solid was collected by filtration, and washed with THF (2×35 mL). The solid was suspended in EtOH (80 mL). The suspension was stirred at reflux for 15 minutes. The solid product was collected by filtration, washed with EtOH (35 mL) and acetone (35 mL). The resulting solid was dried in vacuo, affording compound DM (5.6 g, 30%). ¹H NMR (D₂O, 500 MHz) δ ppm 7.41 (m, 5H), 2.74 (m, 4H), 1.88 (m, 2H), 1.66 (s, 6H). ¹³C NMR (D₂O, 125 MHz) δ ppm 138.36, 129.44, 129.41, 126.52, 61.56, 48.04, 41.21, 24.80, 21.81. ES-MS 256 (M−1). Preparation of 3-[(1R)-1-(4-methylphenyl)ethyl]amino-1-propanesulfonic acid (Compound FN)

To a solution of (R)-(+)-1-(4-methoxyphenyl)ethylamine (5.83 g, 38,6 mmol) in tetrahydrofuran (25 mL) was slowly added 1,3-propanesultone (4.56 g, 36.8 mmol). The solution was stirred at reflux for 4 hours. The reaction mixture was cooled to room temperature. The solid was collected by filtration, washed with THF (25 mL) and acetone (25 mL). The solid was suspended in EtOH (200 mL). The suspension was stirred at reflux for 15 min. The solid was collected by filtration, washed with cold EtOH (50 mL), and dried in a vacuum oven (50° C.), to afford compound FN (5.6 g, 56%). ¹H NMR (D₂O, 500 MHz) δ ppm 7.26 (d, 2H, J=8.3 Hz), 6.90 (d, 2H, J=8.3 Hz), 4.22 (m, 1H), 3.68 (s, 3H), 2.92 (m, 1H), 2.76 (m, 3H), 1.90 (m, 2H), 1.49 (d, 3H, J=6.8 Hz). ¹³C NMR (D₂O, 125 MHz) δ ppm 159.87, 129.34, 128.18, 114.85, 57.99, 55.58, 48.05, 44.21, 21.45, 18.21. ES-MS 272 (M−1). Preparation of 3-[(1R)-1-indanamino]-1-propanesulfonic acid (Compound DO)

To a solution of (R)-(−)-1-aminoindan (1.0 g, 7.5 mmol) in tetrahydrofuran (10 mL) was slowly added 1,3-propane sultone (890 mg, 7.1 mmol). The mixture was stirred at reflux for 2 hours. The reaction mixture was cooled to room temperature. The solid material was collected by filtration, and washed with THF (20 mL) and acetone (20 mL). The solid was suspended in 80% acetone/EtOH (40 mL). The suspension was stirred at reflux for 30 sec. The solid product was collected by filtration, washed with acetone (2×20 mL), and dried in vacuo, to afford compound DO (1.1 g, 61%). ¹H NMR (D₂O, 500 MHz) δ ppm 7.41 (d, 1H, J=7.3 Hz), 7.30 (m, 2H), 7.24 (m, 1H), 4.72 (m, 1H), 3.14 (t, 2H, J=7.8 Hz), 3.02 (m, 1H), 2.88 (m, 3H), 2.43 (m, 1H), 2.12 (m, 1H), 2.01 (m, 2H). ¹³C NMR (D₂O, 125 MHz) δ ppm 145.38, 136.39, 130.31, 127.20, 125.72, 125.54, 62.98, 48.10, 43.93, 29.84, 28.62, 21.64. [α]_(D)=−1.3° (c=0.00515 in water). ES-MS 254 (M−1). Preparation of 3-(N-tert-butylcarbamyl)amino-1-propanesulfonic acid, Sodium Salt (Sodium Salt of Compound DP)

3-amino-1-propanesulfonic acid (2.0 g, 14.3 mmol) was dissolved in 1.6M NaOH (10 mL). To this solution was added tert-butyl isocyanate (1.1 g, 14.3 mmol). The reaction mixture was stirred at 70° C. for 1 h, followed by addition of one equivalent of tert-butyl isocyanate (1.1 g, 14.3 mmol). The reaction mixture was stirred for 1 h. The solvent was evaporated under reduced pressure. The residue was suspended in EtOH (30 mL). The solid product was collected by filtration, washed with EtOH (20 mL) and acetone (20 mL). The resulting solid was dried in vacuo, to afford the sodium salt of compound DP (2.1 g, 66%). ¹H NMR (D₂O, 500 MHz) δ ppm 3.03 (t, 2H, J=6.6 Hz), 2.76 (t, 2H, J=7.6 Hz), 1.72 (m, 2H), 1.12 (s, 9H). ¹³C NMR D₂O, 125 MHz) δ ppm 160.35, 50.26, 48.74, 38.31, 28.86, 25.24. ES-MS 280 (M+Na). Preparation of 3-(1,2-dimethyl-1-propyl)amino-1-propanesulfonic acid (Compound DQ)

To a solution of 1,2-dimethylpropylamine (10.0 g, 115 mmol) in tetrahydrofuran (80 mL) was slowly added a solution of 1,3-propane sultone (13.7 g, 110 mmol) in THF (20 mL). The solution was stirred at reflux for 2 hours. The reaction mixture was cooled to room temperature. The solid product was collected by filtration, washed with THF (50 mL) and EtOH (50 mL). The resulting solid was dried in vacuo, to afford compound DQ (17.5 g, 76%). ¹H NMR (D₂O, 500 MHz) δ ppm 3.07 (m, 3H), 2.88 (t, 2H, J=7.3 Hz), 1.97 (m, 3H), 1.10 (d, 3H, J=6.8 Hz), 0.85 (d, 3H, J=6.8 Hz), 0.81 (d, 3H, J=6.8 Hz). ¹³C NMR (D₂O, 125 MHz) δ ppm 59.79, 48.19, 44.18, 29.72, 21.51, 18.44, 15.02, 10.71. ES-MS 232 (M+Na). Preparation of 3-(4-methylcyclohexyl)amino-1-propanesulfonic acid (Compound DR)

To a solution of 4-methylcyclohexylamine (97% cis and trans isomers, 11.0 g, 97.4 mmol) in tetrahydrofuran (70 mL) was slowly added a solution of 1,3-propane sultone (11.5 g, 92.8 mmol) in THF (20 mL). The mixture was stirred at reflux for 2 hours. The reaction mixture was cooled to room temperature. The solid material was collected by filtration, washed with THF (50 mL) and acetone (50 mL). The solid was suspended EtOH. The suspension was stirred at room temperature for 5 minutes. The solid product was collected by filtration, washed with EtOH (50 mL), and dried in a vacuum oven (50° C.), to afford compound DR (16.1 g, 75%). ¹H NMR (D₂O, 500 MHz) δ ppm 3.08 (m, 2.5H), 2.93 (m, 0.5H), 2.87 (m, 2H), 1.99 (m, 4H), 1.64 (m, 3H), 1.47 (m, 1H), 1.24 (m, 2H), 0.88 (m, 1H), 0.78 (m, 3H). ¹³C NMR (D20, 125 MHz) δ ppm 57.35, 56.52, 48.16, 18.05, 43.73, 43.30, 32.45, 31.13, 28.92, 28.69, 27.77, 24.55, 21.65, 21.53, 21.20, 18.38. ES-MS 236 (M+1). Preparation of 3-(2-methyl-1-butyl)amino-1-propanesulfonic acid (Compound DS)

To a solution of (+/−)-2-methylbutylamine (10 g, 115 mmol) in tetrahydrofuran (80 mL) was slowly added a solution of 1,3-propane sultone (13.5 g, 109 mmol) in THF (20 mL). The mixture was stirred at reflux for 2 hours. The reaction mixture was cooled to room temperature. The solid material was collected by filtration, washed with acetone (2×30 mL). The solid was suspended 95% Acetone/EtOH (200 mL). The suspension was stirred at room temperature for 5 minutes. The solid product was collected by filtration, and dried in a vacuum oven (50° C.), to afford compound DS (17.6 g, 78%). ¹H NMR (D20, 500 MHz) δ ppm 3.07 (t, 2H, J=7.8 Hz), 2.93 (m, 3H), 2.76 (m, 1H), 2.01 (m, 2H), 1.67 (m, 1H), 1.30 (m, 1H), 1.09 (m, 1H), 0.81 (d, 3H, J=6.8 Hz), 0.77 (t, 3H, J=6.8 Hz). ¹³C NMR (D₂O, 125 MHz) δ ppm 53.48, 48.13, 46.92, 31.96, 26.38, 21.29, 16.11, 10.19. ES-MS 210 (M+1). Preparation of 3-pivaloylamino-1-propanesulfonic acid (Compound DT)

3-amino-1-propanesulfonic acid (2.0 g, 14.4 mmol) was dissolved a NaOH (1.2 g, 30.2 mmol) solution in a mixture of 1,4-dioxane (5 mL) and water (15 mL). The mixture was cooled to 0° C. before pivaloyl chloride (2.8 mL, 21.6 mmol) in 1,4-dioxane (5 mL) was added dropwise. The reaction mixture was allowed to warm up to room temperature and it was stirred at 65° C. for 4 h. The solvent was evaporated under reduced pressure. The resulting solid was dissolved in water (30 mL), and treated with Dowex 50WX8 resin. The suspension was stirred for 5 minutes and the resin was removed by filtration. The filtrate was evaporated under reduced pressure. The residual material was suspended in 20% EtOH/Acetone. The mixture was stirres at reflux for 30 seconds. The solid product was collected by filtration, and dried in vacuo, to afford compound DT (1.3 g, 41%). ¹H NMR (D₂O, 500 MHz) δ ppm 3.16 (t, 2H, J=6.8 Hz), 2.75 (t, 2H, J=7.8 Hz), 1.78 (m, 2H), 1.1 (s, 9H). ¹³C NMR (D20, 125 MHz) δ ppm 182.75, 48.70, 38.57, 38.18, 26.65, 24.27. ES-MS 222 (M−1). Preparation of 3-(3,3,5-trimethylcyclohexyl)amino]-1-propanesulfonic acid (Compound ED)

To a solution of 3,3,5-trimethylcyclohexylamine (5.0 g, 35.4 mmol) in tetrahydrofuran (35 mL) was slowly added a solution of 1,3-propane sultone (4.17 g, 33.7 mmol) in THF. The mixture was stirred at reflux for 2 hours. The reaction mixture was cooled to room temperature. The solid material was collected by filtration, washed with acetone (2×25 mL). The solid was suspended 90% Acetone/EtOH (100 mL) The suspension was stirred at room temperature for 5 min. The solid product was collected by filtration, and dried in a vacuum oven (50° C.), affording compound ED (5.9 g, 67%). ¹H NMR (D20, 500 MHz) δ ppm 3.20 (m, 1H), 3.08 (m, 2H), 2.87 (t, 2H, J=6.8 Hz), 1.96 (m, 3H), 1.60 (m, 2H), 1.29 (m, 1H), 1.01 (m, 1H), 0.84 (s, 3H), 0.73 (m, 8H). ¹³C NMR (D20, 125 MHz) δ ppm 54.98, 48.06, 46.51, 43.28, 40.96, 37.02, 32.07, 31.23, 26.68, 24.28, 21.67, 21.52. ES-MS 262 (M−1). Preparation of 3-(2-indanamino)-1-propanesulfonic acid (Compound EE)

To a solution of 2-aminoindan (2.50 g, 18.8 mmol) in tetrahydrofuran (25 mL) was slowly added 1,3-propane sultone (2.24 g, 17.9 mmol). The mixture was stirred at reflux for 2.5 h. The reaction mixture was cooled to room temperature. The solid material was collected by filtration, washed with acetone (2×25 mL). The crude product was suspended in 90% Acetone/EtOH (100 mL). The suspension was stirred at room temperature for 5 minutes. The solid product was collected by filtration, and dried in a vacuum oven (50° C.), to afford compound EE (3.1 g, 67%). ¹H NMR (DMSO, 500 MHz) δ ppm 7.25 (m, 2H), 7.20 (m, 2H), 4.00 (m, 1H), 3.30 (m, 2H), 3.13 (m, 2H), 3.02 (m, 2H), 2.64 (m, 2H), 1.96 (m, 2H). ¹³C NMR (DMSO, 125 MHz) δ ppm 130.98, 127.80, 125.25, 57.70, 49.24, 45.87, 36.32, 22.66. ES-MS 254 (M−1). Preparation of 3-(4-biphenylamino)-1-propanesulfonic acid (Compound EF)

To a solution of 4-aminobiphenyl (3.0 g, 17.8 mmol) in tetrahydrofuran (25 mL) was slowly added 1,3-propane sultone (2.11 g, 16.9 mmol). The solution was stirred at reflux for 3 h. The reaction mixture was cooled to room temperature. The solid material was collected by filtration, washed with acetone (2×25 mL). The crude product was dissolved in a hot solution of 80% MeOH/H₂O (120 mL). To this warm solution was added Dowex 50WX8 ion exchange resin (10 g). The hot suspension was stirred for 5 minutes and the resin was removed by filtration. The filtrate was concentrated to dryness under reduced pressure. The residual solid was dried in a vacuum oven (50° C.), affording compound EF (283 mg, 6%). ¹H NMR (DMSO, 500 MHz) δ ppm 7.77 (d, 2H, J=7.8 Hz), 7.66 (d, 2H, J=7.8 Hz), 7.46 (m, 3H), 7.37 (m, 1H), 3.44 (m, 2H), 2.68 (m, 2H), 1.98 (m, 2H). ¹³C NMR (DMSO, 125 MHz) δ ppm 139.74, 129.69, 128.74, 128.33, 127.31, 122.23, 49.70, 22.93. ES-MS 290 (M−1). Preparation of 3-[(1R,2S)-2-hydroxy-1-(methoxymethyl)-2-phenylethyl]amino-1-propanesulfonic acid (Compound EG)

To a solution of (1S,2S)-2-amino-3-methoxy-1-phenyl-1-propanol (1.0 g, 5.5 mmol) in tetrahydrofuran (10 mL) was slowly added 1,3-propane sultone (662 mg, 5.3 mmol). The mixture was stirred at reflux for 2.5 h. The reaction mixture was cooled to room temperature. The solid material was collected by filtration, washed with acetone (2×25 mL). The crude product was suspended 80% Acetone/EtOH. The suspension was stirred at reflux for 30 seconds. The solid product was collected by filtration and dried in a vacuum oven (50° C.), to afford compound EG (1.0 g, 63%). ¹H NMR (D₂O, 500 MHz) δ ppm 7.32 (m, 5H), 4.77 (d, 1H, J=9.8 Hz), 3.53 (m, 1H), 3.37 (m, 1H) 3.26 (m, 1H), 3.17 (m, 6H), 2.91 (t, 2H, J=7.3 Hz), 2.07 (m, 2H). ¹³C NMR D₂O, 125 MHz) δ ppm 139.09, 129.33, 129.27, 127.11, 70.85, 66.29, 62.62, 58.76, 48.14, 44.24, 21.47. [C]D=+42.6° (c=0.00091 in water), ES-MS 302 (M−1). Preparation of 3-[(1R,2R,3R,5S)-1,2,6,6-tetramethylbicyclo[3.1.1]hept-3-yl]amino-1-propanesulfonic acid (Compound EH)

To a solution of (1R,2R,3R,5S)-(−)-isopinocampheylamine (2.0 g, 13.0 mmol) in tetrahydrofuran (20 mL) was slowly added 1,3-propanesultone (1.56 g, 12.5 mmol). The mixture was stirred at reflux for 2 hours. The reaction mixture was cooled to room temperature. The solid product was collected by filtration, washed with acetone (2×25 mL), and dried in a vacuum oven (50° C.), to afford compound EH (2.7 g, 80%). ¹H NMR (DMSO, 500 MHz) δ ppm 3.32 (m, 2H), 3.09 (d, 2H), 2.67 (m, 2H), 2.30 (m, 2H), 1.96 (m, 4H), 1.75 (m, 2H), 1.18 (s, 3H), 1.11 (m, 4H), 0.90 (s, 3H). ¹³C NMR (DMSO, 125 MHz) δ ppm 55.97, 50.11, 47.55, 45.86, 41.15, 40.91, 38.94, 32.81, 31.61, 27.96, 23.85, 22.59, 21.21, [α]_(D)=−17.2° (c=0.00083 in water), ES-MS 274 (M−1). Preparation of 3-(2-methoxy-1-methylethyl)amino-1-propanesulfonic acid (Compound EI)

To a solution of 2-amino-1-methoxypropane (5.0 g, 17.8 mmol) in tetrahydrofuran (25 mL) was slowly added 1,3-propane sultone (2.12 g, 17.0 mmol). The mixture was stirred at reflux for 4 h. The reaction mixture was cooled to room temperature. The solid product was collected by filtration, washed with acetone (2×25 mL), and dried in a vacuum oven (50° C.), to afford compound EI (3.1 g, 86%). ¹H NMR (D20, 500 MHz) δ ppm 3.53 (m, 1H), 3.41 (m, 2H), 3.27 (s, 3H), 3.11 (m, 2H), 2.89 (t, 2H, J=7.3 Hz), 2.00 (m, 2H), 1.18 (d, 3H, J=5.9 Hz). ¹³C NMR (D20, 125 MHz) δ ppm 71.73, 58.80, 53.79, 48.08, 43.55, 21.52, 12.79. ES-MS 210 (M−1). Preparation of 3-[(1R)-2-benzyl-1-hydroxyethyl]amino-1-propanesulfonic acid (Compound EJ)

To a solution of (R)-(+)-2-amino-3-phenyl-1-propanol (1.0 g, 6.6 mmol) in tetrahydrofuran (10 mL) was slowly added 1,3-propane sultone (785 mg, 6.3 mmol). The mixture was stirred at reflux for 2 hours. The reaction mixture was cooled to room temperature. The solid material was collected by filtration, washed with acetone (2×25 mL). The crude product was suspended 80% acetone/EtOH (100 mL). The suspension was stirred at reflux for 30 seconds. The solid product was collected by filtration, washed with acetone (2×25 mL), and dried in a vacuum oven (50° C.), to afford compound EJ (890 mg, 52%). ¹H NMR (DMSO, 500 MHz) δ ppm 8.58 (s (broad), 1H), 7.26 (m, 5H), 5.30 (s (broad), 1H), 3.53 (m, 1H), 3.31 (m, 2H) 3.14 (t, 2H), 2.98 (m, 1H), 2.80 (m, 1H), 2.62 (t, 2H), 1.98 (m, 2H). ¹³C NMR (DMSO, 125 MHz) δ ppm 137.31, 130.00, 129.26, 127.49, 60.16, 57.78, 49.90, 45.34, 33.78, 22.49. [α]_(D)=+9.7° (c=0.00118 in water). ES-MS 272 (M−1). Preparation of 3-[(1S)-2-benzyl-1-hydroxyethyl]amino-1-propanesulfonic acid (Compound EK)

To a solution of (S)-(−)-2-amino-3-phenyl-1-propanol (2.0 g, 13.2 mmol) in tetrahydrofuran (20 mL) was slowly added 1,3-propane sultone (1.57, 12.6 mmol). The mixture was stirred at reflux for 2 hours. The reaction mixture was cooled to room temperature. The solid material was collected by filtration, washed with acetone (2×25 mL). The crude product was suspended 80% Acetone/EtOH. The suspension was stirred at reflux for 30 seconds. The solid product was collected by filtration, and dried in a vacuum oven (50° C.), to afford compound EK (1.9 g, 56%). ¹H NMR (DMSO, 500 MHz) δ ppm 8.63 (s (broad), 1H), 7.27 (m, 5H), 5.31 (s (broad), 1H), 3.53 (m, 1H), 3.25 (m, 2H) 3.15 (t, 2H), 2.98 (m, 1H), 2.80 (m, 1H), 2.61 (t, 2H), 1.99 (m, 2H). ¹³C NMR (DMSO, 125 MHz) δ ppm 137.31, 130.01, 129.27, 127.49, 60.18, 57.77, 49.88, 45.32, 33.78, 22.49. [α]_(D)=−7.5° (c=0.00118, H₂O). ES-MS 272 (M−1). Preparation of 3-(N-methyl-N-tert-butylamino)-1-propanesulfonic acid (Compound EN)

To a solution of N-methyl-tert-butylamine (2.0 g, 22.9 mmol) in acetone (25 mL) was slowly added 1,3-propane sultone (2.72 g, 21.8 mmol). The mixture was stirred at reflux for 3 h. The reaction mixture was cooled to room temperature. The solid material was collected by filtration, washed with acetone (2×25 mL). The crude product was suspended in 80% Acetone/EtOH. The suspension was stirred at reflux for 30 seconds. The solid product was collected by filtration, and dried in a vacuum oven (50° C.), to afford compound EN (2.9 g, 65%). ¹H NMR (DMSO, 500 MHz) δ ppm 9.40 (s (broad), 1H), 3.45 (m, 1H), 2.85 (m, 1H), 2.59 (m, 5H), 1.99 (m, 2H), 1.28 (s, 9H). ¹³C NMR (DMSO, 125 MHz) δ ppm 63.23, 51.12, 49.73, 34.79, 25.50, 21.72. ES-MS 208 (M−1). Preparation of 3-[(1R,2S)-2-hydroxyindan-1-amino]-1-propanesulfonic acid (Compound EO)

To a solution of (1R,2S)-1-amino-2-indanol (2.37 g, 15.9 mmol) in tetrahydrofuran (25 mL) was slowly added 1,3-propane sultone (1.89 g, 15.1 mmol). The mixture was stirred at reflux for 2 hours. The reaction mixture was cooled to room temperature. The solid material was collected by filtration, and washed with acetone (2×25 mL). The crude product was suspended in 80% acetone/ethanol (75 mL). The suspension was stirred at reflux for 30 seconds. The solid product was collected by filtration, and dried in a vacuum oven (50° C.), to afford the compound EO (2.7 g, 65%). ¹H NMR (D₂O, 500 MHz) δ ppm 7.36 (d, 1H, J=7.4 Hz), 7.24 (m, 3H), 4.70 (q, 1H, J=5.5 Hz), 4.53 (d, 1H, J=5.4 Hz), 3.23 (t, 2H, J=7.8 Hz), 3.10 (m, 1H), 2.89 (m, 3H), (m, 1H), 2.08 (m, 2H). ¹³C NMR (D₂O, 125 MHz) δ ppm 141.60, 134.30, 130.53, 127.61, 126.10, 125.69, 70.42, 64.08, 48.25, 44.73, 38.33, 21.50. [α]_(D)=+3.0° (c=0.0018, water) ES-MS 272 (M+1). Preparation of 3-[(1S)-1-(hydroxymethyl)-2-methylpropyl]amino-1-propanesulfonic acid (Compound EP)

To a solution of (S)-(−)-2-amino-3-methyl-1-butanol (2.50 g, 24.2 mmol) in tetrahydrofuran (35 mL) was slowly added 1,3-propane sultone (2.89 g, 23.0 mmol). The mixture was stirred at reflux for 3 h. The reaction mixture was cooled to room temperature. The solid material was collected by filtration, washed with acetone (2×25 mL). The crude product was suspended in 80% acetone/ethanol (75 mL). The suspension was stirred at reflux for 30 secondes. The solid product was collected by filtration, and dried in a vacuum oven (50° C.), to afford compound EP (2.9 g, 56%). ¹H NMR (D20, 500 MHz) δ ppm 3.78 (dd, 1H), 3.62 (dd, 1H), 3.13 (m, 2H), 2.90 (m, 1H), 2.88 (t, 3H), 1.90 (m, 3H), 0.90 (d, 3H), 0.84 (d, 3H). ¹³C NMR (D20, 125 MHz) δ ppm 64.74, 57.24, 48.20, 44.44, 26.98, 21.49, 18.53, 17.00. [OC]D=+4.1° (c=0.0017 in water), ES-MS 224 (M−1). Preparation of 3-[(1S)-1-carbamoyl-2-methylpropyl]amino-1-propanesulfonic acid (Compound EQ)

L-valinamide hydrochloride (2.50 g, 16.4 mmol) was treated with a saturated solution of K₂CO₃ (75 mL). The mixture was extracted with EtOAc (3×75 mL). The organic extracts were combined, dried over Na₂SO₄. The solid material was removed by filtration, and the filtrate was concentrated to dryness under reduced pressure. The residual material was dried in vacuo.

To a solution of L-valinamide (1.57 g, 13.5 mmol) in tetrahydrofuran (20 mL) was slowly added 1,3-propane sultone (1.61 g, 12.9 mmol). The mixture was stirred at reflux for 2 hours. The reaction mixture was cooled to room temperature. The solid material was collected by filtration, washed with acetone (2×25 mL). The crude product was dissolved in water (60 mL) and treated with ion exchange resin Dowex Marathon C (strongly acidic, 15 g). The mixture was stirred for 15 minutes. The resin was removed by filtration. The filtrate was poured into EtOH (250 mL). The solid product, after the completion of the precipitation, was collected by filtration, and dried in vacuo, to afford compound EQ (1.6 g, 51%). ¹H NMR (D20, 500 MHz) δ ppm 3.63 (d, 1H), 3.05 (m, 2H), 2.85 (m, 2H), 2.05 (m, 4H), 0.93 (d, 3H), 0.88 (d, 3H). ¹³C NMR (D20, 125 MHz) δ ppm 170.24., 65.92, 48.16, 46.31, 29.59, 21.31, 18.02, 17.07. [α]_(D)=+10.5° (c=0.0027 in water), ES-MS 237 (M−1). Preparation of 3-isobutylamino-1-propanesulfonic acid (Compound CE)

Isobutylamine (2.4 mL, 24 mmol) was added to a solution of 1,3-propane sultone (3.04 g, 24.5 mmol) in 2-butanone (20 mL). The mixture was heated to reflux. After about 10 minutes, the mixture had turned into a lump. It was cooled to room temperature. Acetone was added and the lump was crushed. The solid was collected by filtration and dried in-vacuo (2.2 g). The white solid was suspended in ethanol (10 mL) and the mixture brought to reflux. A significant amount of the solid dissolved. Water was added slowly until a clear pink solution was obtained. The solution was left at room temperature overnight. The flask was placed in a fridge for 2 hours. The solid product was collected by filtration, rinsed with ethanol (5 mL), washed with ether (10 mL), and dried in-vacuo. Compound CE was obtained as long, fine white needles (1.87 g, 40% yield). m.p. 255-57-C. ¹H NMR (500 MHz, D₂O) δ 0.88 (d, J=6.8 Hz, 6H), 1.85-1.93 (m, J=6.8 Hz, 1H), 2.03 (qt, J=7.6 Hz, 2H), 2.80 (d, J=7.3 Hz, 2H), 2.90 (t, J=7.3 Hz, 2H), 3.08 (t, J=8.1 Hz, 2H). ¹³C NMR (125 MHz, D₂O) δ 19.2, 21.2, 25.8, 46.9, 48.1, 54.9 ES-MS 196 (M+1). FT-IR (KBr) v_(max) 3566, 2973, 2021, 1719. Preparation of 3-isoamylamino-1-propanesulfonic acid (Compound CH)

Isoamylamine (4 mL, 34.5 mmol) was added to a solution of 1,3-propane sultone (4.7 g, 38 mmol) in 2-butanone (70 mL). The mixture was warmed to reflux. After 30 minutes, the mixture was too thick to stir. Acetone (15 mL) was added. The reflux was maintained for a total of 4 hours. The suspension was cooled at room temperature. The white solid was collected by filtration, rinsed with acetone (10 mL), then with ether (10 mL). Compound CH was obtained as a very light, fluffy white solid (4.48 g, 62% yield). m.p. 220° C.: decomposed. ¹H NMR (500 MHz, D₂O) δ 0.65 (d, J=6.3 Hz, 6H), 1.29 (q, J=7.7 Hz, 2H), 1.35-1.42 (m, J=6.6 Hz, 1H), 1.86 (qt, J=7.6 Hz, 2H), 2.74 (t, J=7.3 Hz, 2H), 2.81 (t, J=8.1 Hz, 2H), 2.93 (t, J=7.8 Hz, 2H). ¹³C NMR (125 MHz, D₂O) δ 21.3, 21.4, 25.2, 34.2, 46.1, 46.2, 47.9 Preparation of 2-(tert-butyl)amino-1-ethanesulfonic Acid (Compound DU)

A solution of 2-bromoethanesulfonic acid, sodium salt (4.2 g, 20 mmol) in water (total 12 mL) was added over 6 hours to a 420C solution of t-butylamine (10 mL, 94 mmol) in a mixture of water (10 mL) and 1,4-dioxane (10 mL). The mixture was stirred at 42° for 18 hours. The mixture was then heated to 60° C. for 24 h. By proton NMR, 30% of elimination product (vinylsulfonic acid) was observed. The mixture was concentrated to dryness and treated with ethanol at refluxing temperature. The solid material was collected (crop 1). The mother liquor was concentrated to dryness and the solid was again treated with ethanol at refluxing temperature, and the solid material was collected (crop 2). Both crops of the solid material were dissolved in water, and the resultant aqueous solutions passed in sequence through a Dowex 50 W X 8 ion-exchange column (100 g resin). The fractions containing the title compound were collected and concentrated to dryness. The solid material obtained was recrystallized from a mixture of ethanol (20 mL) and water (2 mL). The crystals were collected by filtration, dried in a vacuum oven at 60° C. for 18 hours. Compound DU was obtained as fine white needles (860 mg, 24% yield). ¹H NMR (500 MHz, D₂O) δ 1.16 (s, 9H), 3.02 (t, J=6.8 Hz, 2H), 3.19 (t, J=6.8 Hz, 2H). ¹³C NMR (125 MHz, D₂O) δ 24.8, 37.3, 47.0, 57.8. ES-MS 182 (M+1) Preparation of 3-(cyclohexanemethyl)amino-1-propanesulfonic acid (Compound DV)

A mixture of cyclohexanemethylamine (11.12 mL, 0.085 mol) and 1,3-propane sultone (11.00 g, 0.090 mol) in acetonitrile (120 mL) was heated at reflux for 2 hours. The mixture was cooled to room temperature. The solid was collected by filtration, air-dried for 20 minutes (19 g). The solid was suspended in methanol (100 mL) and the suspension was heat to reflux. Water (4 mL) was added dropwise until a clear solution was obtained at refluxing temperature. The mixture was then cooled to 5° C. with stirring. The solid was collected by suction filtration, air-dried for 45 minutes, and further dried in a vacuum oven at 60° C. for over 3 days. Compound DV was obtained as white flakes, (16.23 g, 81% yield.). ¹H NMR (500 MHz, D₂O) δ 0.82 (br q, J=11 Hz, 2H), 0.91-1.09 (m, 3H), 1.43-1.53(m, 6H), 1.93 (qt, J=7.3 Hz, 2H), 2.71 (d, J=6.3 Hz, 2H), 2.80 (t, J=7.3 Hz, 2H), 2.71 (t, J=7.8 Hz, 2H). ¹³C NMR (125 MHz, D₂O) δ 21.2, 25.0, 25.5, 29.9, 34.7, 46.8, 48.1, 53.7. ES-MS 236 (M+1) Preparation of 3-(1,1-diethylpropargyl)amino-1-propanesulfonic acid (Compound DW)

A mixture of 1,1-diethylpropargylamine (5 g, 45 mmol) and 1,3-propane sultone (6.05 g, 49.5 mmol) in TBF (25 mL) was heated at reflux for 5 hours. The mixture was cooled to room temperature. The solid was collected by filtration, rinsed with diisopropylether (2×10 mL) then dried overnight in the vacuum oven (7.16 g). The solid was suspended in ethanol (30 mL) and the suspension was heated at reflux for 1 hour. The mixture was then cooled to room temperature and the solid was collected by suction filtration, air-dried for 5 m, and further dried in a vacuum oven at 60° C. overnight (5.86 g). There was still a significant amount of ethanol present. The solid was further dried in the vacuum oven for 40 hours. Compound DW was obtained as a fine white solid, (5.66 g, 81% yield). ¹H NMR (500 MHz, D₂O) δ 0.92 (t, J=7.6 Hz, 2H), 1.71 (q, J=7.3 Hz, 3H), 1.93 (qt, J=7.3 Hz, 2H), 2.81 (t, J=7.3 Hz, 2H), 2.94 (s, 1H), 3.13 (t, J=7.6 Hz, 2H). ¹³C NMR (125 MHz, D₂O) δ 7.2, 21.6, 27.8, 41.4, 48.1, 62.2, 78.6, 78.9. ES-MS 234 (M+1) Preparation of 3-(1-ethynylcyclohexyl)amino-1-propanesulfonic acid (Compound DX)

A mixture of 1-ethynylcyclohexylamine (6 g, 48.7 mmol) and 1,3-propane sultone (6.55 g, 53.6 mmol) in THF (35 mL) was heated at reflux for 2 hours (thick paste). The mixture was cooled to room temperature. The solid was collected by filtration, rinsed with THF (3×5 mL), air-dried 15 minutes (7.3 g). The solid was suspended in ethanol (30 mL) and the suspension was heated at reflux for 1 hour. The mixture was then cooled to room temperature and the solid was collected by suction filtration, rinsed with ethanol (2×5 mL), air-dried for 10 min, and further dried in a vacuum oven at 60° C. overnight (crop 1, 7.10 g). The combined mother liquors were stirred overnight at room temperature. There was a lot of solid. The solid was collected by filtration, rinsed with acetone (3×5 mL), air-dried for 30 minutes, and then suspended in ethanol (12 mL). The suspension was heated at reflux for 1 hour. The mixture was then cooled to room temperature and the solid was collected by suction filtration, rinsed with ethanol (2×5 mL), air-dried for 2 minutes, and further dried in a vacuum oven at 60° C. overnight (crop 2: 1.85 g). Compound DX was obtained as a fine white solid (two crops in total 8.95 g, 75% yield). ¹H NMR (500 MHz, D₂O) δ 0.95-1.05 (m, 1H), 1.38-1.54 (m, 5H), 1.60-1.64 (m, 2H), 1.94 (qt, J=7.8 Hz, 2H), 2.85 (t, J=7.3 Hz, 2H), 3.01 (s, 1H), 3.22 (t, J=7.8 Hz, 2H). ¹³C NMR (125 MHz, D₂O) δ 21.8, 22.3, 24.2, 34.4, 40.9, 48.0, 59.2, 78.6, 79.3. ES-MS 243.0 (M−1). Preparation of (3-(2-hydroxy-2-phenyl)amino-1-propanesulfonic acid (Compound DY)

A mixture of (±)-2-Amino-1-phenylethanol (9.9 g, 72 mmol) and 1,3-propane sultone (9.3 g, 76 mmol) in acetonitrile (70 mL) and ethanol (2 mL) was heated at reflux for 1.5 hours. The mixture was cooled to room temperature. The solid was collected by filtration, rinsed with acetonitrile (2×25 mL) air-dried for 20 minutes (21.3 g). The solid was suspended in methanol (110 mL) and the suspension was heated to reflux. Water (4 mL) was added dropwise until a clear solution was obtained. The mixture was then cooled to room temperature. The solid was collected by suction filtration, air-dried for 30 minutes, and further dried in a vacuum oven at 60° C. for 40 hours (crop 1, 4.47 g). The combined mother liquor was stored at −20° C. for 40 hours. A second crop of the solid was collected by filtration, rinsed with acetone (2×15 mL), air-dried (1 hour), and further dried in a vacuum oven at 60° C. for 24 hours. Compound DY was obtained in two crops (total 7.82 g, 42% yield). ¹H NMR (500 MHz, D₂O) 6, 2.03-2.06 (m, 2H), 2.90 (t, J=7.3 Hz, 2H), 3.16 (t, J=7.3 Hz, 2H), 3.20-3.24 (m, 2H), 4.92-4.95 (m, 1H), 7.30-7.37 (m, 5H). ¹³C NMR (125 MHz, D₂O) δ 21.3, 46.6, 78.1, 53.2, 69.0, 126.1, 129.0, 129.2, 139.6. ES-MS 260 (M+1). Preparation of 3-[(S)-1-(4-methoxyphenyl)ethyl]amino-1-propanesulfonic acid (Compound DZ)

A mixture of (S)-(−)-(4-methoxyphenyl)ethylamine (1.83 g, 12.1 mmol) and 1,3-propane sultone (1.6 g, 13 mmol) in acetonitrile (25 mL) was heated at reflux for 2.5 hours. The mixture was cooled to room temperature. The solid was collected by filtration, rinsed with acetonitrile (2×5 mL) air-dried for 15 minutes (3.07 g). The solid was suspended in ethanol (15 mL) and the suspension was heated at reflux for 1 hour. The mixture was then cooled to room temperature. The solid was collected by suction filtration, rinsed with ethanol (2×10 mL), air-dried for 15 minutes, and further dried in a vacuum oven at 60° C. for 18 hours. Compound DZ was obtained as a white solid (2.95 g, 10.8 mmol, 89% yield). ¹H NMR (500 MHz, D₂O) δ 1.52 (d, J=6.8 Hz, 3H), 1.88-1.98 (m, 2H), 2.76-2.79 (m, 3H), 2.80-2.98 (m, 1H), 3.71 (s, 3H), 4.25 (qt, J=6.7 Hz, 2H), 6.93 (d, J=8.3 Hz, 2H), 7.29 (d, J=8.3 Hz, 2H). ¹³C NMR (125 MHz, D₂O) δ 18.3, 21.5, 44.2, 48.1, 55.6, 58.0, 114.9, 128.2, 129.4, 159.9. ES-MS 274. (M+1). [α]_(D)=−28.8° (c=0.0038 in water) Preparation of 3-(4-bromophenethyl)amino-1-propanesulfonic acid (Compound EA)

A mixture of 4-Bromophenethylamine (4 g, 20 mmol) and 1,3-propane sultone (2.56 g, 21 mmol) in acetonitrile (390 mL) was heated at reflux for 2.5 hours. The mixture was cooled to room temperature. The solid was collected by filtration, rinsed with acetonitrile (2×5 mL) air-dried for 15 minutes (9.57 g), and further dried for 15 minutes in vacuo (8.02 g). The solid was suspended in ethanol (40 mL) and the suspension was heated at reflux for 1 hour. The mixture was then cooled to room temperature. The solid was collected by suction filtration, rinsed with ethanol (2×5 mL), air-dried for 15 minutes, and further dried in a vacuum oven at 60° C. for 18 hours. Compound EA was obtained as a white solid (6.04 g, 18.8 mmol, 94% yield). ¹H NMR (500 MHz, DMSO) δ 1.95 (t, J=6.3 Hz, 3H), 2.63 (t, J=6.1 Hz, 2H), 2.88 (t, J=7.6 Hz, 2H), 3.09 (t, J=6.3 Hz, 2H), 3.15 (t, J=7.8 Hz, 2H), 7.25 (2, J=7.8 Hz, 2H), 7.53 (2, J=7.8 Hz, 2H), 8.63 (br s, 2H). ¹³C NMR (125 MHz, DMSO) δ 21.8, 31.0, 46.7, 47.2, 48.8, 119.9, 131.0, 131.4, 136.5. ES-MS 324 (M+1). Preparation of 3-[(S)-1-indanamino]-1-propanesulfonic acid (Compound EB)

A mixture of (S)-(−)-1-aminoindan (0.92 g, 6.9 mmol) and 1,3-propane sultone (0.93 g, 7.6 mmol) in acetonitrile (15 mL) was heated at reflux for 2.5 hours. The mixture was cooled to room temperature. The solid was collected by filtration, rinsed with acetonitrile (2×4 mL), air-dried for 15 minutes. The solid was suspended in ethanol (12 mL) and the suspension was heated at reflux for 1 hour. The mixture was then cooled to room temperature. The solid was collected by suction filtration, rinsed with ethanol (2×4 mL), air-dried for 15 minutes, and further dried in a vacuum oven at 60° C. over the weekend. Compound EB was obtained as a light pink solid (1.54 g, 87% yield). ¹H NMR (500 MHz, D₂O) δ 2.00 (qt, J=7.3 Hz, 2H), 2.09-2.13 (m, 1H), 2.40-2.45 (m, 1H), 2.84-2.87 (m, 3H), 2.98-3.04 (m, 1H), 3.12 (t, J=7.8 Hz, 2H), 4.67-4.70 (m, 1H), 7.22 (m, 2H), 7.29-7.32 (m, 2H), 7.40 (d, J=7.8 Hz, 1H). ¹³C NMR (125 MHz, D₂O) δ 21.6, 28.6, 29.8, 43.9, 48.1, 63.0, 125.5, 125.7, 127.2, 130.3, 136.3, 145.4. ES-MS 256 (M+1). [α]_(D)=−1.0° (c=0.003095 in water). Preparation of 3-cyclobutylamino-1-propanesulfonic acid (Compound EC)

A mixture of cyclobutylamine (1.11 g, 15.6 mmol) and 1,3-propane sultone (2 g, 17 mmol) in acetonitrile (18 mL) was heated at reflux. The mixture turned to a lump within 15 minutes. THF (10 mL) was added. The reflux was maintained for 1 hour. The mixture was cooled to room temperature. The solid was collected by filtration, rinsed with acetonitrile (2×4 mL), air-dried for 60 minutes (2.41 g). The solid was suspended in methanol (20 mL) and the suspension was heated at reflux until all the solid material was dissolved. The mixture was then cooled to room temperature. The solid thus formed was collected by suction filtration, rinsed with methanol (2×4 mL), air-dried for 20 minutes, and further dried in a vacuum oven at 40° C. for 18 hours. Compound EC was obtained as a white solid (1.81 g, 60% yield). ¹H NMR (500 MHz, D₂O) δ 1.70-1.77 (m, 2H), 1.94-2.03 (m, 4H), 2.18 (br s, 2H), 2.85 (t, J=6.8 Hz, 1H), 2.95 (t, J=7.3 Hz, 1H), 3.63-3.66 (m, 1H). ¹³C NMR (125 MHz, D₂O) δ 14.5, 21.5, 26.1, 43.6, 48.0, 51.8. ES-MS 194 (M+1). Preparation of 3-(4-mexiletino)-1-propanesulfonic acid (Compound EV)

Mexiletine hydrochloride (2.45 g, 11.3 mmol) was freed with 1N NaOH (50 mL), extracted with ethyl acetate (2×50 mL). The combined extract was dried over sodium sulfate. The solvent was evaporated. A solution of 1,3-propane sultone (1.46 g, 11.9 mmol) in THF (35 mL) was added to the free amine. The mixture was heated at reflux for 4 hours. The mixture was cooled to room temperature; and the resultant solid material was collected by filtration, rinsed with THF (5 mL). The solid was dried overnight at 40° C. The filtrated dried in air overnight to afford a brownish solid (1.45 g) it was less pure than the first crop thus discarded. Compound EV was obtained as a white solid (1.19 g, 56% (99% crude) yield). ¹H NMR (500 MHz, DMSO) δ 1.39 (d, J=6.3 Hz, 3H), 2.02 (t, J=5.9 Hz, 2H), 2.26 (s, 6H), 2.67 (t, J=5.9 Hz, 2H), 3.21 (br d, J=19.5 Hz, 2H), 3.61 (br s, 1H), 3.83-3.91 (m, 2H), 6.95 (t, J=7.3 Hz, 1H), 7.04 (m, 2H), 8.91 (br s, 2H). ¹³C NMR (125 MHz, DMSO) δ 13.3, 16.0, 21.8, 44.6, 49.2, 52.9, 70.8, 124.3, 128.9, 130.4, 154.2. ES-MS 302 (M+1). Preparation of 3-(1-benzyl-2-methoxyethyl))amino-1-propanesulfonic acid (Compound EW)

S-(+)-2-Amino-1-methoxy-3-phenylpropane hydrochloride (2.06 g, 10.0 mmol) was freed with saturated potassium carbonate (20 mL). The aqueous mixture was extracted with ethyl acetate (3×15 mL); and the combined extract was dried over sodium sulfate. The solvent was evaporated. A solution of 1,3-propane sultone (1.29 g, 10.5 mmol) in THF (15 mL) was added to the free amine. The mixture was heated at reflux for 4 hours. The mixture was cooled to room temperature and stirred for 1 hour. The solid was collected by filtration, rinsed with acetone (5 mL). The solid was dried overnight at 40° C. Compound EW was obtained as a white solid (2.48 g, 83% yield). ¹H NMR (500 MHz, DMSO) δ 1.99 (m, 2H), 2.65 (t, J=6.1 Hz, 2H), 2.80 (t, J=12.0 Hz, 1H), 3.05 (m, 2H), 3.17 (m, 3H), 3.22 (dd, J=3.4 Hz, 10.7 Hz, 2H), 3.33 (m, 1H), 3.43 (d, J=10.7 Hz, 2H), 3.50 (m, 1H), 7.27 (m, 3H), 7.35 (t, J=7.1 Hz, 2H), 8.86 (br d, 1H). ¹³C NMR (125 MHz, DMSO) δ 21.8, 33.4, 45.0, 49.2, 57.8, 58.5, 68.1, 126.9, 128.7, 129.2, 136.3. ES-MS 310 (M+1). [α]_(D)=−0.8° (c=0.0025 in water). Preparation of 3-[1-(N-hydroxycarbamoyl)-2-phenylethyl)amino-1-propanesulfonic acid (Compound FO)

A solution of hydroxylamine 50% in water (wt./wt, 7 mL) was added to a solution of L-N-(3-sulfopropyl)phenylalanine ethyl ester (1.00 g, 3.17 mmol in water (5 mL). The mixture was stirred at room temperature for 24 hours. The mixture was concentrated to dryness. The resulting solid was dissolved in a mixture of hot methanol (10 mL) and water; and the mixture was stored at 5° C. for 3 days. Only a very small amount of solid had formed. Upon addition of acetone (3 mL), a large amount of solid formed. The solid was collected by suction-filtration, rinsed with acetone (2×5 mL) then dried overnight at 40° C. in a vacuum oven. Compound FO was obtained as a white solid (700 mg, 73%). ¹H NMR (500 MHz, D₂O) δ 2.03-2.07 (m, 2H), 2.88-2.90 (M, 2H), 2.99-3.03 (M, 1H), 3.07-3.12 (M, 1H), 3.18-3.23 (m, 1H), 3.82-3.85 (m, 1H), 7.15 (d, J=6.8 Hz, 2H), 7.26-7.31 (m, 3H). 1³C (125 MHz, D₂O) δ 19.3, 33.8, 43.2, 45.8, 57.9, 126.0, 127.1, 127.3, 131.4, 162.2. ES-MS 303 (M+Na). [α]_(D)=40° (c=0.001983 in water). 

1. A compound of Formula I:

wherein: R¹ is a substituted or unsubstituted cycloalkyl, heterocyclic, aryl, arylcycloalkyl, bicyclic or tricyclic ring, a bicyclic or tricyclic fused ring group, or a substituted or unsubstituted C₂-C₁₀ alkyl group; R² is hydrogen or alkyl; Y is SO₃ ⁻X⁺; X⁺ is hydrogen or a cationic group; and each of L¹ and L² is independently a substituted or unsubstituted C₁-C₅ alkyl group or absents, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, ester or prodrug thereof, provided that when R¹ is alkyl, L¹ is absent; provided that when R² is benzyl, L¹ is methylene, R¹ is phenyl, L is —(CH₂)₃—, Y is not SO₃ ⁻X⁺, provided that when R² is hydrogen, L² is —(CH₂)₃—, L¹ is methylene, R¹ is 1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl or 3,4-methoxybenzyl, Y is not SO₃ ⁻X⁺, and provided that when R² is hydrogen, L² is —(CH₂)₃—, L¹ is absent, R¹ is t-butyl, isobutyl, pentyl, n-heptyl, n-octyl, n-nonyl, cyclohexyl, isopropyl, isoamyl, 1-hydroxy-2-propyl, 3,5-dimethyl-1-adamantyl, 1-hydroxy-2-pentyl, 3-methyl butyric acid, -4-methyl-pentanoic acid methyl ester, or 2,2-diphenyl-ethyl, Y is not SO₃ ⁻X⁺.
 2. A compound of Formula II:

wherein: R¹ is a substituted or unsubstituted cyclic, bicyclic, tricyclic, or benzoheterocyclic group or a substituted or unsubstituted C₂-C₁₀ alkyl group; R² is hydrogen, alkyl, mercaptoalkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, cycloalkyl, aryl, arylalkyl, thiazolyl, triazolyl, imidazolyl, benzothiazolyl, benzoimidazolyl, or linked to R¹ to form a heterocycle; Y is SO₃ ⁻X⁺, OSO₃ ⁻X⁺, or SSO₃ ⁻X⁺; X⁺ is hydrogen, a cationic group, or an ester forming moiety; m is 0; n is 1, 2, 3, or 4; L is substituted or unsubstituted C₁-C₃ alkyl group or absent; or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, ester or prodrug thereof, provided that when R¹ is alkyl, L is absent.
 3. The compound of claim 1 or 2, wherein R² is hydrogen.
 4. The compound of claim 1 or 2, wherein R¹ is straight chain alkyl.
 5. The compound of claim 4, wherein R¹ is ethyl, n-pentyl, n-heptyl, n-octyl, or n-nonyl.
 6. The compound of claim 1 or 2, wherein R¹ is t-butyl.
 7. The compound of claim 1 or 2, wherein R¹ is carbocyclic.
 8. The compound of claim 1 or 2, wherein R¹ is C₇-C₁₀ bicycloalkyl.
 9. The compound of claim 1 or 2, wherein R¹ is tricycloalkyl.
 10. The compound of claim 9, wherein R¹ is tricyclo[3.3.1.0^(3,7)]decyl or adamantyl.
 11. The compound of claim 9, wherein R¹ is bicyclo[2.1.2]heptyl.
 12. The compound of claim 1 or 2, wherein said bicyclic fused ring group is indolyl.
 13. The compound of claims 1, wherein L¹ is CH₂CH₂.
 14. The compound of claim 1 or 2, wherein R¹ is tetrahydronaphthyl.
 15. The compound of claim 1 or 2, wherein L¹ is absent.
 16. The compound of claim 1 or 2, wherein said compound is:

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, ester, or prodrug thereof.
 17. A compound of Formula III:

wherein: A is nitrogen or oxygen; R¹¹ is hydrogen, salt-forming cation, ester forming group, or —(CH₂)_(x)-Q; Q is hydrogen, thiazolyl, triazolyl, imidazolyl, benzothiazolyl, or benzoimidazolyl; x is 0, 1, 2, 3, or 4; n is 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, or 10; R³, R^(3a), R⁴, R^(4a), R⁵, R^(5a), R⁶, R^(6a), R⁷ and R^(7a) are each independently hydrogen, alkyl, mercaptoalkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, cycloalkyl, aryl, alkylcarbonyl, arylcarbonyl, alkoxycarbonyl, cyano, halogen, amino, tetrazolyl, or two R groups on adjacent ring atoms taken together with the ring atoms form a double bond, provided that one of R³, R^(3a), R⁵, R^(5a), R⁶, and R^(6a) is a moiety of Formula IIa:

wherein: m is 0, 1, 2, 3, or 4; R^(A), R^(B), R^(C), R^(D), and R^(E) are independently selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, halogen, hydroxyl, alkyl, alkoxyl, halogenated alkyl, mercaptoalkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, cycloalkyl, aryl, cyano, thiazolyl, triazolyl, imidazolyl, tetrazolyl, benzothiazolyl, and benzoimidazolyl; or a pharmaceutically acceptable salts, esters, and prodrugs thereof, provided that said compound is not 3-(4-phenyl-1, 2, 3, 6-tetrahydro-1-pyridyl)-1-propanesulfonic acid, and provided that when R^(3a), R⁴, R^(4a), R⁵, R^(5a), R⁶, R^(6a), R⁷ and R^(7a) are hydrogen, R³ is not a moiety of Formula IIa.
 18. The compound of claim 17, wherein n is 2, 3 or
 4. 19. The compound of claim 17, wherein R¹¹ is a salt-forming cation.
 20. The compound of claim 19, wherein said salt-forming cation is lithium, sodium, potassium, magnesium, calcium, barium, zinc, iron, or ammonium.
 21. The compound of claim 17, wherein R¹¹ is an ester-forming group.
 22. The compound of claim 21, wherein said ester-forming group is substituted or unsubstituted alkyl, aryl, alkenyl, alkynyl, or cycloalkyl.
 23. The compound of claim 17, wherein R³ and R⁴ are taken together form a double bond.
 24. The compound of claim 17, wherein R⁴, R⁵, R⁶, and R⁷ are each hydrogen.
 25. The compound of claim 17, wherein R^(3a) is hydroxyl, cyano, acyl, or hydroxyl.
 26. The compound of claim 17, wherein R^(A), R^(B), R^(C), R^(D), and R^(E) are each hydrogen.
 27. The compound of claim 17, wherein R^(A), R^(B), R^(D), and R^(E) are each hydrogen, and R^(C) is halogen.
 28. The compound of claim 27, wherein said halogen is fluorine, bromine, chlorine, or iodine.
 29. The compound of claim 17, wherein m is 0 or
 1. 30. The compound of claim 17, wherein m is
 3. 31. The compound of claim 17, wherein A is oxygen.
 32. The compound of claim 17, wherein R³ is a moiety of Formula IIIa.
 33. The compound of claim 17, wherein said compound is:

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, ester, or prodrug thereof.
 34. A compound of Formula IV:

wherein: A is nitrogen or oxygen; R¹¹ is hydrogen, salt-forming cation, ester forming group, or —(CH₂)_(x)-Q; Q is hydrogen, thiazolyl, triazolyl, imidazolyl, benzothiazolyl, or benzoimidazolyl; x is 0, 1, 2, 3, or 4; n is 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, or 10; R⁴, R^(4a), R⁵, R^(5a), R⁶, R^(6a), R⁷, and R^(7a) are each independently hydrogen, alkyl, mercaptoalkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, cycloalkyl, aryl, alkylcarbonyl, arylcarbonyl, alkoxycarbonyl, cyano, halogen, amino, tetrazolyl, R⁴ and R⁵ taken together, with the ring atoms they are attached to, form a double bond, or R⁶ and R⁷ taken together, with the ring atoms they are attached to, form a double bond; m is 0, 1, 2, 3, or 4; R⁸, R⁹, R¹⁰, R¹¹, and R¹² are independently selected from a group of hydrogen, halogen, hydroxyl, alkyl, alkoxyl, halogenated alkyl, mercaptoalkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, cycloalkyl, aryl, cyano, thiazolyl, triazolyl, imidazolyl, tetrazolyl, benzothiazolyl, and benzoimidazolyl; or a pharmaceutically acceptable salts, esters, or prodrugs thereof.
 35. The compound of claim 34, wherein m is
 0. 36. The compound of claim 34, wherein n is 2, 3, or
 4. 37. The compound of claim 34, wherein R⁴, R⁵, R⁶ and R⁷ are each hydrogen.
 38. The compound of claim 34, wherein R⁸, R⁹, R¹⁰, R¹¹, and R¹² are each hydrogen.
 39. The compound of claim 34, wherein R⁸, R⁹, R¹¹, and R¹² are each hydrogen, and R¹⁰ is fluorine, chlorine, nitro, or alkyl.
 40. The compound of claim 34, wherein R⁹, R¹⁰, R¹¹ and R¹² are each hydrogen, and R⁸ is fluorine.
 41. The compound of claim 35, wherein said compound is:

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salts, esters, or prodrugs thereof.
 42. A compound of Formula V:

wherein: A is nitrogen or oxygen; R¹¹ is hydrogen, salt-forming cation, ester forming group, —(CH₂)_(x)-Q, or when A is nitrogen, A and R¹¹ taken together may be the residue of a natural or unnatural amino acid or a salt or ester thereof, wherein A and R¹¹ taken together are not a leucine residue; Q is hydrogen, thiazolyl, triazolyl, imidazolyl, benzothiazolyl, or benzoimidazolyl; x is 0, 1, 2, 3, or 4; n is 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, or 10; aa is a natural or unnatural amino acid residue; m is 0, 1, 2, or 3; R¹⁴ is hydrogen or protecting group; R¹⁵ is hydrogen, alkyl or aryl; or a pharmaceutically acceptable salts, esters, or prodrugs thereof.
 43. The compound of claim 42, wherein n is 2, 3 or
 4. 44. The compound of claim 42, wherein n is
 3. 45. The compound of claim 43, wherein m is
 0. 46. The compound of claim 43, wherein A-R¹¹ is a residue of a natural amino acid, or a salt or ester thereof.
 47. The compound of claim 46, wherein A-R¹¹ is a phenylalanine residue.
 48. The compound of claim 42, wherein (aa)_(m) is a residue of phenylalanine, glycine, or phe-phe.
 49. The compound of claim 42, wherein R¹⁵ is hydrogen or substituted alkyl.
 50. The compound of claim 49, wherein R¹⁵ is arylalkyl.
 51. The compound of claim 42, wherein said compound is:

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salts, esters, or prodrugs thereof.
 52. The compound of the Formula VI:

wherein: n is 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, or 10; A is oxygen or nitrogen; R¹¹ is hydrogen, salt-forming cation, ester forming group, —(CH₂)_(x)-Q, or when A is nitrogen, A and R¹¹ taken together may be the residue of a natural or unnatural amino acid or a salt or ester thereof; Q is hydrogen, thiazolyl, triazolyl, imidazolyl, benzothiazolyl, or benzoimidazolyl; x is 0, 1, 2, 3, or 4; R¹⁹ is hydrogen, alkyl or aryl; Y¹ is oxygen, sulfur, or nitrogen; Y² is carbon, nitrogen, or oxygen; R²⁰ is hydrogen, alkyl, amino, mercaptoalkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, cycloalkyl, aryl, arylalkyl, thiazolyl, triazolyl, tetrazolyl, imidazolyl, benzothiazolyl, or benzoimidazolyl; R²¹ is hydrogen, alkyl, mercaptoalkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, cycloalkyl, aryl, arylalkyl, thiazolyl, triazolyl, tetrazolyl, imidazolyl, benzothiazolyl, benzoimidazolyl, or absent if Y² is oxygen; R²² is hydrogen, alkyl, mercaptoalkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, cycloalkyl, aryl, arylalkyl, thiazolyl, triazolyl, tetrazolyl, imidazolyl, benzothiazolyl, benzoimidazolyl; or R²² is hydrogen, hydroxyl, alkoxy or aryloxy if Y¹ is nitrogen; or R²² is absent if Y¹ is oxygen or sulfur; or R²² and R²¹ may be linked to form a cyclic moiety if Y¹ is nitrogen; R²³ is hydrogen, alkyl, amino, mercaptoalkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, cycloalkyl, aryl, arylalkyl, thiazolyl, triazolyl, tetrazolyl, imidazolyl, benzothiazolyl, or benzoimidazolyl, or absent if Y² is nitrogen or oxygen; or a pharmaceutically acceptable salts, esters, or prodrugs thereof, provided that when n is 3, Y¹ is oxygen, Y² is oxygen, R²′ is benzyl, A is oxygen, R¹⁹ is not hydrogen; and provided that when n is 3, Y¹ is oxygen, Y² is carbon, each of R²⁰, R²¹, and R²³ is methyl, R¹⁹ is not hydrogen, and provided that R²¹ and R²² are not linked to form an aryl ring.
 53. The compound of claim 52, wherein R¹¹ is a salt forming cation.
 54. The compound of claim 52, wherein A is oxygen.
 55. The compound of claim 52, wherein Y¹ is oxygen or sulfur, and R²² is absent.
 56. The compound of claim 52, wherein Y² is oxygen and R²¹ is absent.
 57. The compound of claim 52, wherein R²⁰ is benzyl, aryl, alkyl, or cycloalkyl.
 58. The compound of claim 52, Y² is nitrogen.
 59. The compound of claims 52, wherein R²¹ is hydrogen.
 60. (Cancelled)
 61. The compound of claim 52, wherein R²¹ is benzyl.
 62. The compound of claim 53, wherein Y¹ is sulfur.
 63. The compound of claim 53, wherein said compound is selected from the group consisting of:

and pharmaceutically acceptable salts, esters, or prodrugs thereof.
 64. A compound of Formula VII, wherein said compound is of the formula:

wherein: n is 2, 3, or 4; A is oxygen or nitrogen; R¹¹ is hydrogen, salt-forming cation, ester forming group, —(CH₂)_(x)-Q, or when A is nitrogen, A and R¹¹ taken together may be the residue of a natural or unnatural amino acid or a salt or ester thereof; Q is hydrogen, thiazolyl, triazolyl, imidazolyl, benzothiazolyl, or benzoimidazolyl; x is 0, 1, 2, 3, or 4; G is a direct bond or oxygen, nitrogen, or sulfur; z is 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5; m is 0 or 1; R²⁴ is selected from a group consisting of hydrogen, alkyl, mercaptoalkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, aroyl, alkylcarbonyl, aminoalkylcarbonyl, cycloalkyl, aryl, arylalkyl, thiazolyl, triazolyl, imidazolyl, benzothiazolyl, and benzoimidazolyl; each R²⁵ is independently selected from hydrogen, halogen, cyano, hydroxyl, alkoxy, thiol, amino, nitro, alkyl, aryl, carbocyclic, or heterocyclic; or a pharmaceutically acceptable salts, esters, or prodrugs thereof.
 65. The compound of claim 64, wherein R¹¹ is hydrogen.
 66. The compound of claim 64, wherein A is oxygen.
 67. The compound of claim 64, wherein n is
 3. 68. The compound of claim 64, wherein R²⁴ is hydrogen.
 69. The compound of claim 64, wherein R²⁴ is benzyl.
 70. The compound of claim 64, wherein m is
 1. 71. The compound of claim 64, wherein z is 0, 2, or
 3. 72. The compound of claim 64, wherein R²⁵ is hydroxyl or alkoxy.
 73. The compound of claim 72, wherein said alkoxy R²⁵ is methoxy.
 74. The compound of claim 64, wherein said compound is selected from the group consisting of:

and pharmaceutically acceptable salts, esters, or an prodrugs thereof.
 75. A compound of the formula:

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salts or esters thereof.
 76. A compound of any one of claims 1, 2, 17, 34, 42, 52, 64 or 75, wherein said compound is not a compound of Table 2A.
 77. A kit for use in treating amyloid related disease comprising a compound of claim 1 or Table 2A, and instructions for use in the method of the instant invention.
 78. A method of treating or preventing an amyloid-related disease in a subject comprising administering to a subject in need thereof a compound of claim 1 or depicted in the Tables and Figures in an amount effective to treat or prevent an amyloid related disease.
 79. The method according to claim 78, wherein said amyloid-related disease is Alzheimer's disease, cerebral amyloid angiopathy, inclusion body myositis, macular degeneration, MCI, or Down's syndrome.
 80. The method according to claim 78, wherein amyloid fibril formation or deposition, neurodegeneration, or cellular toxicity is reduced or inhibited upon administration of said compound.
 81. The method according to claim 78, wherein said amyloid-related disease is diabetes, AA amyloidosis, AL amyloidosis, or hemodialysis related amyloidosis (β₂M).
 82. The method according to claim 78, wherein said subject is a human.
 83. The method of claim 78, wherein said subject has Alzheimer's disease, Mild Cognitive Impairment, or cerebral amyloid angiopathy, and stabilization of cognitive function, prevention of a further decrease in cognitive function, or prevention, slowing, or stopping of disease progression occurs in said patient upon administration.
 84. A method for inhibiting amyloid deposition in a subject comprising administering to a subject an effective amount of a therapeutic compound of claim 1 or depicted in the Tables and Figures or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, such that said therapeutic compound inhibits an interaction between an amyloidogenic protein and a glycoprotein or proteoglycan constituent of a basement membrane to inhibit amyloid deposition.
 85. A method for inhibiting amyloid deposition in a subject comprising orally administering to said subject an effective amount of a therapeutic compound of claim 1 or depicted in the Tables and Figures or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof.
 86. A method for reducing amyloid deposits in a subject having amyloid deposits, the method comprising administering to said subject an effective amount of a therapeutic compound of claim 1 or depicted in the Tables and Figures, or pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof.
 87. The method of claim 78, wherein the therapeutic compound is administered orally.
 88. The method of claim 78, wherein said therapeutic compound is administered in a pharmaceutically acceptable vehicle.
 89. A method for inhibiting amyloid deposition in a subject comprising administering to a subject an effective amount of a therapeutic compound of claim 1 or depicted in the Tables and Figures, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, such that amyloid deposition is inhibited.
 90. The method of claim 89, wherein the therapeutic compound is administered orally.
 91. The method of claim 89, wherein said therapeutic compound is administered in a pharmaceutically acceptable vehicle.
 92. A method for inhibiting amyloid deposition in a subject comprising administering to a subject an effective amount of a compound claim 1 or depicted in the Tables and Figures, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, such that the biodistribution of the compound for an intended target site is not prevented while maintaining activity of the compound, such that amyloid deposition is inhibited.
 93. A method for inhibiting amyloid deposition in a subject comprising administering to a subject an effective amount of a compound of claim 1 or depicted in the Tables and Figures, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, such that amyloid deposition is inhibited, such that the biodistribution of the compound for an intended target site is not prevented while maintaining activity of the compound.
 94. (Cancelled).
 95. A method for inhibiting amyloid deposition in a subject comprising administering to a subject an effective amount of a compound of claim 1 or depicted in the Tables and Figures, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, such that an interaction between an amyloidogenic protein and a constituent of a basement membrane is inhibited and amyloid deposition is inhibited.
 96. A method for reducing amyloid deposits in a subject having amyloid deposits, the method comprising administering to a subject an effective amount of a compound of claim 1 or depicted in the Tables and Figures, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, such that amyloid deposits are reduced in the subject.
 97. A method for inhibiting amyloid deposition in a subject comprising administering to a subject an effective amount of a compound of claim 1 or depicted in the Tables and Figures, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, such that the compound inhibits an interaction between an amyloidogenic protein and a glycoprotein or proteoglycan constituent of a basement membrane, such that amyloid deposition is inhibited.
 98. The use of a compound according to claim 78 in the preparation of a medicament for the treatment or prevention of an amyloid-related disease.
 99. A pharmaceutical composition for the treatment or prevention of an amyloid-related disease comprising a compound according to claim
 1. 100. A pharmaceutical composition comprising a compound according to claim
 1. 101. A pharmaceutical composition comprising a compound described in the Tables, Formulas or Schemes.
 102. A pharmaceutical composition for treating amyloidosis comprising a compound, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, in an amount sufficient to inhibit amyloid deposition in a subject, the compound wherein in the compound is of claim
 1. 103. A pharmaceutical composition for treating amyloidosis comprising a compound, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, in an amount sufficient to inhibit an interaction between an amyloidogenic protein and a constituent of a basement membrane and to inhibit amyloid deposition in a subject, wherein in the compound is of claim
 1. 104. A pharmaceutical composition for preventing amyloidosis comprising a compound, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, in an amount sufficient to inhibit an interaction between an amyloidogenic protein and a constituent of a basement membrane and to inhibit amyloid deposition in a subject, wherein in the compound is of claim
 1. 105. A pharmaceutical composition for treating amyloidosis comprising a compound, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, in an amount sufficient to inhibit amyloid deposition in a subject, wherein in the compound is of claim
 1. 106. The method of claim 78, wherein said compound prevents or inhibits amyloid fibril formation.
 107. The method of claim 78, wherein said compound prevents amyloid peptide, in its soluble, oligomeric form or in its fibrillar form, from binding or adhering to a cell surface and causing cell damage or toxicity.
 108. The method of claim 78, wherein said compound blocks amyloid-induced cellular toxicity or microglial activation.
 109. The method of claim 78, wherein said compound blocks amyloid-induced neurotoxicity.
 110. The method of claim 78, wherein said compound reduces the rate or amount of amyloid aggregation, fibril formation, or deposition.
 111. The method of claim 78, wherein said compound slows the rate of amyloid fibril formation or deposition.
 112. The method of claim 78, wherein said compound lessens the degree of amyloid deposition.
 113. The method of claim 78, wherein said compound inhibits, reduces, or prevents amyloid fibril formation.
 114. The method of claim 78, wherein said compound inhibits amyloid induced inflammation.
 115. The method of claim 78, wherein said compound enhances the clearance of amyloid from the brain.
 116. The method of claim 78, wherein said compound alters the equilibrium of amyloid between the CSF or brain and the plasma and decreases the amount of amyloid-P in the brain versus the equilibrium distribution in an untreated subject.
 117. The method of claim 78, wherein said compound reverses deposition of amyloid in a subject having amyloid deposits.
 118. The method of claim 78, wherein said compound favors deposition of amyloid in a subject having amyloid deposits.
 119. The method of claim 78, wherein said compound favors plaque clearance or slows deposition in a subject having amyloid deposits.
 120. The method of claim 78, wherein said compound decreases the amyloid concentration in the brain of a subject versus an untreated subject.
 121. The method of claim 78, wherein said compound penetrates into the brain.
 122. The method of claim 78, wherein said compound maintains soluble amyloid in a non-fibrillar form.
 123. The method of claim 78, wherein said compound increases the rate of clearance of soluble amyloid from the brain of a subject versus an untreated subject.
 124. The method of claim 78, wherein said compound inhibits or reduces an interaction between amyloid and a cell surface constituent.
 125. The method of claim 124, wherein said cell surface constituent is a glycosaminoglycan or proteoglycan constituent of a basement membrane.
 126. The method of claim 78, wherein said amyloid is an amyloid-β peptide having 39-43 amino-acids.
 127. The method of claim 78, wherein said amyloid is an amyloidogenic peptide produced from βAPP.
 128. The method of claim 78, wherein said amyloid-related disease is Mild Cognitive Impairment or Mild-to-Moderate Cognitive Impairment.
 129. The method of claim 78, wherein said amyloid-related disease is vascular dementia.
 130. The method of claim 78, wherein said amyloid-related disease is Alzheimer's disease.
 131. The method of claim 130, wherein said Alzheimer's disease is sporadic (non-hereditary) Alzheimer's disease, familial (hereditary) Alzheimer's disease, or early Alzheimer's disease.
 132. The method of claim 78, wherein said amyloid-related disease is β₂M amyloidosis, AL amyloidosis, AA amyloidosis, or diabetes.
 133. The method of claim 78, wherein said amyloid-related disease is cerebral amyloid angiopathy or hereditary cerebral hemorrhage.
 134. The method of claim 78, wherein said amyloid-related disease is senile dementia, Down's syndrome, inclusion body myositis, or age-related macular degeneration
 135. The method of claim 78, wherein said amyloid-related disease is familial amyloid polyneuropathy (FAP), senile systemic amyloidosis, Tenosynovium, familial amyloidosis, Ostertag-type, non-neuropathic amyloidosis, cranial neuropathy, hereditary cerebral hemorrhage, familial dementia, chronic dialysis, familial Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease; Gerstmann-Straussler-Scheinker syndrome, hereditary spongiform encephalopathies, prion diseases, familial Mediterranean fever, Muckle-Well's syndrome, nephropathy, deafness, urticaria, limb pain, cardiomyopathy, cutaneous deposits, multiple myeloma, benign monoclonal gammopathy, maccoglobulinaemia, myeloma associated amyloidosis, medullary carcinomas of the thyroid, isolated atrial amyloid, or diabetes.
 136. The method of claim 78, wherein said pharmaceutical composition is therapeutically or prophylactically administered to a subject.
 137. The method of claim 78, wherein said pharmaceutical composition is orally administered to a subject.
 138. The method of claim 78, wherein said subject is a human.
 139. The method of claim 78, wherein said subject is a human over 40 years old.
 140. The method of claim 78, wherein said subject is a human over 50 years old.
 141. The method of claim 78, wherein said subject is a human over 60 years old.
 142. The method of claim 78, wherein said subject is a human over 70 years old.
 143. The method of claim 78, wherein said subject is a human over 80 years old.
 144. The method of claim 78, wherein said subject is a human over 85 years old.
 145. The method of claim 78, wherein said subject is a female human.
 146. The method of claim 78, wherein said subject is a postmenopausal female human.
 147. The method of claim 78, wherein said subject is on hormone replacement therapy.
 148. The method of claim 78, wherein said subject is a male human.
 149. The method of claim 78, wherein said subject has Alzheimer's disease or a genetic predisposition for developing Alzheimer's disease.
 150. The method of claim 78, wherein said subject has vascular dementia.
 151. The method of claim 78, wherein said subject has senile dementia.
 152. The method of claim 78, wherein said subject has Mild Cognitive Impairment.
 153. The method of claim 78, wherein said subject has a genomic mutation in the APP gene.
 154. The method of claim 78, wherein said subject is a carrier of the ApoE₂ allele.
 155. The method of claim 78, wherein said subject has a genomic mutation in a presenilin gene.
 156. The method of claim 78, wherein said subject has familial, sporadic, or idiopathic Alzheimer's disease or cerebral amyloid angiopathy.
 157. The method of claim 78, wherein said subject has amyloid deposits.
 158. The method of claim 78, wherein said subject's brain has amyloid-β amyloid deposits.
 159. The pharmaceutical composition of claim 99, wherein said compound prevents or inhibits amyloid fibril formation.
 160. The pharmaceutical composition of claim 99, wherein said compound prevents amyloid peptide, in its soluble, oligomeric form or in its fibrillar form, from binding or adhering to a cell surface and causing cell damage or toxicity.
 161. The pharmaceutical composition of claim 99, wherein said compound blocks amyloid-induced cellular toxicity or microglial activation.
 162. The pharmaceutical composition of claim 99, wherein said compound blocks amyloid-induced neurotoxicity.
 163. The pharmaceutical composition of claim 99, wherein said compound reduces the rate or amount of amyloid aggregation, fibril formation, or deposition.
 164. The pharmaceutical composition of claim 99, wherein said compound slows the rate of amyloid fibril formation or deposition.
 165. The pharmaceutical composition of claim 99, wherein said compound lessens the degree of amyloid deposition.
 166. The pharmaceutical composition of claim 99, wherein said compound inhibits, reduces, or prevents amyloid fibril formation.
 167. The pharmaceutical composition of claim 99, wherein said compound inhibits amyloid-induced inflammation.
 168. The pharmaceutical composition of claim 99, wherein said compound enhances the clearance of amyloid from the brain.
 169. The pharmaceutical composition of claim 99, wherein said compound alters the equilibrium of amyloid between the brain and the plasma and decreases the amount of amyloid in the brain versus the equilibrium distribution in an untreated subject.
 170. The pharmaceutical composition of claim 99, wherein said compound reverses or favors deposition of amyloid in a subject having amyloid deposits.
 171. The pharmaceutical composition of claim 99, wherein said compound favors plaque clearance or slows deposition in a subject having amyloid deposits.
 172. The pharmaceutical composition of claim 99, wherein said compound decreases the amyloid concentration in the brain of a subject versus an untreated subject.
 173. The pharmaceutical composition of claim 99, wherein said compound penetrates into the brain.
 174. The pharmaceutical composition of claim 99, wherein said compound maintains soluble amyloid in a non-fibrillar form.
 175. The pharmaceutical composition of claim 99, wherein said compound increases the rate of clearance of soluble amyloid from the CSF or brain of a subject versus an untreated subject.
 176. The pharmaceutical composition of claim 99, wherein said compound inhibits or reduces an interaction between amyloid-β and a cell surface constituent.
 177. The pharmaceutical composition of claim 176, wherein said cell surface constituent is a glycosaminoglycan or proteoglycan constituent of a basement membrane.
 178. The pharmaceutical composition of claim 99, wherein said amyloid-β is a peptide having 39-43 amino-acids.
 179. The pharmaceutical composition of claim 99, wherein said amyloid-β is an amyloidogenic peptide produced from KAPP.
 180. The pharmaceutical composition of claim 99, wherein said amyloid-related disease is Mild Cognitive Impairment or Mild-to-Moderate Cognitive Impairment.
 181. The pharmaceutical composition of claim 99, wherein said amyloid-related disease is vascular dementia.
 182. The pharmaceutical composition of claim 99, wherein said amyloid-related disease is Alzheimer's disease.
 183. The pharmaceutical composition of claim 182, wherein said Alzheimer's disease is sporadic (non-hereditary) Alzheimer's disease, early Alzheimer's disease, or familial (hereditary) Alzheimer's disease.
 184. The pharmaceutical composition of claim 99, wherein said amyloid-related disease is AA amyloidosis, AL amyloidosis, β₂M amyloidosis, or diabetes.
 185. The pharmaceutical composition of claim 99, wherein said amyloid-related disease is cerebral amyloid angiopathy or hereditary cerebral hemorrhage.
 186. The pharmaceutical composition of claim 99, wherein said amyloid-related disease is senile dementia, Down's syndrome, Mild Cognitive Impairment, inclusion body myositis, or age-related macular degeneration.
 187. The pharmaceutical composition of claim 99, wherein said amyloid-related disease is familial amyloid polyneuropathy (FAP), senile systemic amyloidosis, familial amyloidosis, Ostertag-type, non-neuropathic amyloidosis, cranial neuropathy, hereditary cerebral hemorrhage, familial dementia, chronic dialysis, familial Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease; Gerstmann-Straiussler-Scheinker syndrome, hereditary spongiform encephalopathies, prion diseases, familial Mediterranean fever, Muckle-Well's syndrome, nephropathy, deafness, urticaria, limb pain, cardiomyopathy, cutaneous deposits, multiple myeloma, benign monoclonal gammopathy, maccoglobulinaemia, myeloma associated amyloidosis, medullary carcinomas of the thyroid, isolated atrial amyloid, or diabetes.
 188. The pharmaceutical composition of claim 99, wherein said pharmaceutical composition further comprises a pharmaceutically acceptable acid, base, buffering agent, inorganic salt, solvent, or preservative.
 189. The pharmaceutical composition of claim 99, further comprising a compound that increases the cerebral bioavailability of said compound.
 190. The pharmaceutical composition of claim 99, wherein said compound is dissolved in a liquid pharmaceutically acceptable vehicle.
 191. The pharmaceutical composition of claim 99, wherein said compound is present as a homogenous mixture in a capsule or pill.
 192. The method of claim 78, wherein the deposition in a subject of amyloid protein is reduced by at least 15%.
 193. The method of claim 78, wherein the deposition in a subject of amyloid protein is reduced by at least 40%.
 194. The method of claim 78, wherein the deposition in a subject of amyloid protein is reduced by at least 60%.
 195. The method of claim 78, wherein the deposition in a subject of amyloid protein is reduced by at least 80%.
 196. A method for inhibiting amyloid deposition in a subject comprising contacting a body fluid with a compound of claim 1 or depicted in the Tables and Figures, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, and administering said body fluid to said subject, such that amyloid deposition in said subject is inhibited.
 197. The method of claim 196, wherein said body fluid is blood.
 198. The method of claim 196, wherein said body fluid is in contact with said compound ex vivo.
 199. The method of claim 198, wherein said subject is suffering from hemodialysis related amyloidosis.
 200. The method of claim 78, wherein said amyloid-related disease is diabetes and wherein glycemia is stabilized.
 201. The method of claim 78, wherein said amyloid-related disease is diabetes and wherein β cell mass loss is prevented or reduced.
 202. The method of claim 78, wherein said amyloid-related disease is diabetes and wherein hyperglycemia due to β cell mass loss is reduced.
 203. The method of claim 78, wherein said amyloid-related disease is diabetes- and wherein the change of the pro-IAPP/IAPP ratio is stabilized.
 204. The method of claim 78, wherein said amyloid-related disease is diabetes; and wherein insulin production is modulated.
 205. The method of claim 204, wherein insulin production is stabilized or increased.
 206. The method of claim 196, wherein accumulation of fibrils in a joint of said subject is prevented or reduced.
 207. The method of claim 78, wherein said amyloid related disease is treated or prevented by reducing or preventing inflammation.
 208. A method for preventing, slowing, or stopping disease progression comprising administering to a subject an effective amount of a compound of claim 1, such that said disease progression is prevented slowed, or stopped.
 209. The method of claim 208, wherein said disease is Mild Cognitive Impairment, Mild-to-Moderate Cognitive Impairment, vascular dementia, Alzheimer's disease, cerebral amyloid angiopathy, hereditary cerebral hemorrhage, senile dementia, Down's syndrome, inclusion body myositis, or age-related macular degeneration.
 210. A method for treating a subject for an amyloid-related disease, comprising: administering a cognitive test to a subject prior to administration of a compound of claim 1; administering an effective amount of the compound to the subject, and administering a cognitive test to the subject subsequent to administration of said compound, such that said subject is treated for said amyloid-related disease, wherein the subject's score on said cognitive test is improved.
 211. The method of claim 210, wherein said cognitive test is CDR, MMSE, or ADAS-Cog.
 212. The method of claim 210, wherein the subject's score is maintained.
 213. The method of claim 210, wherein said cognitive test is CDR or ADAS-Cog, wherein said subject's score is decreased.
 214. The method of claim 210, wherein said cognitive test is MMSE, wherein the subject's score is increased.
 215. The method of claim 211, wherein the rate of increase of the subject's score on CDR, or ADAS-Cog, is less than that of untreated controls.
 216. The method of claim 211, wherein the rate of decrease of the subject's score on MMSE, is less than that of untreated controls.
 217. The method of claim 210, wherein said amyloid related disease is Mild Cognitive Impairment, Mild-to-Moderate Cognitive Impairment, vascular dementia, Alzheimer's disease, senile dementia, or Down's syndrome.
 218. The method of claim 78, wherein the amyloid protein is AH amyloid protein, AL amyloid protein, amyloid λ, amyloid κ, amyloid κIV, amyloid γ, or amyloid γ1.
 219. A method for reducing or preventing the deposition of amyloid protein, comprising administering to a subject in need thereof a compound of claim 1, wherein said amyloid protein is AH amyloid protein, AL amyloid protein, amyloid λ, amyloid κ, amyloid κIV, amyloid γ, or amyloid γ1.
 220. A method for reducing the rate of change of organ function due to amyloid deposition, comprising administering to a subject in need thereof a compound of claim 1 or depicted in the Tables or Figures, such that the rate of change of organ function to amyloid deposition is reduced.
 221. A method for inhibiting fibril formation, comprising administering to a subject an effective amount of a compound of claim 1 or depicted in the Tables or Figures, wherein said effective amount is effective to inhibit protein-protein interactions, such that fibril formation is inhibited.
 222. A method for treating CAA or hereditary cerebral hemorrhage, comprising administering an effective amount of a compound claim 1 or depicted in the Tables of Figures, wherein said effective amount is effective to decrease the recurrence of hemorrhagic stroke. 